During normal quiet breathing, respiratory muscles are controlled by the medulla in the brainstem and during voluntary and behavioral breathing, respiratory muscles are controlled by the motor cortex in the frontal lobe [1]. The medulla oblongata is situated in the lower part of the brainstem where it has autonomic (involuntary) functions such as the control…
A bacterial infection is the invasion and multiplication of bacteria in the body tissues causing damage and immune reactions [1]. The most common bacterial infections are: 1. What Are Bacteria? Bacteria are unicellular microorganisms, and therefore, cannot be seen by the naked eye [2]. They are also known as prokaryotes and are found everywhere around…
Neuroinflammation is the inflammation of the brain or the spinal cord due to the production of cytokines, chemokines, secondary messengers, and reactive oxygen species. 1- What Are cytokines? Cytokines are small proteins that are produced by white blood cells, such as lymphocytes T and lymphocytes B, and endothelial cells, mast cells, fibroblasts, and mesenchymal cells….
