Following the fecundation of an egg by a sperm, the fertilized egg begins a series of cell divisions that leads to the formation of a mass of cells known as the blastula. This mass contains two types of cell masses, the trophoblast, and the inner cell mass. The trophoblast leads to the formation of the…
Prolonged stress or chronic stress promotes susceptibility to diseases and infections such as sepsis, endocarditis, respiratory viral infections, meningitis, and other central nervous system infections. This type of stress significantly affects the immune system by raising the levels of catecholamine (adrenaline and dopamine), glucocorticoids (e.g., cortisol), and suppressor T cells, which suppress the immune…
Cancer is a disease characterized by an uncontrollable division of cells that can invade surrounding tissues or spread to other parts of the body through a process known as metastasis. This uncontrollable division or proliferation is associated with genetic alterations in tumor suppressor genes that control cell division, DNA repair, and apoptosis. These genetic alterations…
Epigenetics is a natural and regular process by which environmental and behavioral factors affect the expression and activity of genes, independently of alterations in DNA sequences (genotype), such as during genetic mutations. These modifications can be transmitted to daughter cells and are influenced by several factors, including age, the environment, lifestyles, and disease states. These factors…
