• Connective Tissue
• Epithelial Tissue
• Muscle Tissue
• Nervous Tissue

1. What Is a Connective Tissue?

Connective tissue provides structure, support, protection, and connection to other tissues and organs of the body [1].

1.1. What Are the 3 Types of Connective Tissue?

Connective tissue is made of fibers, gelatinous-like substances, and cells, and is divided into 3 types of tissues: loose connective tissue, dense connective tissue, and specialized connective tissue.

1.1.1. Where Is Loose Connective Tissue Found and What Is Its Function?

Loose connective tissue is found in almost every part of the body where it maintains organs in place.

It is made of an extracellular matrix and fibers of collagen, elastin, and reticulum.

• What Is Extracellular Matrix?

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a complex network made of macromolecules and minerals, including collagen, elastin, glycoproteins, laminin, fibronectin, hydroxyapatite, and enzymes [2].

The extracellular matrix is found between the different cells of the body where it works as a structural scaffold and serves as membranous support where cells stand.

Glycoproteins are a type of protein involved in the interactions between and within cells.

Laminin is made of glycoproteins and collagen that form a membrane where the cells stand. This type of membrane is known as the basement membrane.

Fibronectin is a glycoprotein that works like a biological glue that connects the cells to the extracellular matrix through its interaction with proteins known as integrins found on the surface of cells.

Hydroxyapatite is also known as the bone mineral is made of calcium and phosphorus. It is mostly found in the bone and teeth connective tissues.

Enzymes are proteins that work as a catalyst through reactions that produce products necessary for the function of cells and tissues.

What Are Collagen Fibers?

Collagen is made by cells known as fibroblasts and is assembled into fibrils that make the collagen fibers.

Collagen fibers provide structural support for the cells of the extracellular matrix.

What Are Collagen Fibers?

What Are Elastin Fibers?

Elastin fibers are fibers that provide elasticity to the tissues.

What Are Reticular Fibers?

Reticular fibers are a type of collagen made by reticular cells. They form a supportive network for soft tissues such as the liver, bone marrow, and lymphatic system.

1.1.2. Where Is Dense Connective Tissue Found and What Is Its Function?

Dense Connective Tissue is what makes the tendons and ligaments. It also provides structure, support, protection, and connectivity.

Dense Connective Tissue is also made of extracellular matrix and fibers of collagen, elastin, and reticulum.

1.1.3. What Is Specialized Connective Tissue and What Is Its Function?

Specialized connective tissues include the blood, bone, cartilage, and adipose tissue.

Blood is a bodily fluid that provides oxygen and nutrients to tissues and organs of the body. It also collects metabolic waste away from the cells. It is made of red blood cells and plasma.

The bone is a hard connective tissue (support and connect tissues) that contains a honey-comb shaped structure made of a mineralized matrix and bone cells.

Cartilage is a gelatinous-like substance that is found in body parts such as joints, rib cage, ears, nose, intervertebral discs, and bronchial tubes.

The Adipose tissue is a specialized tissue that stores fat and insulates the body.

2. What Is Epithelial Tissue?

Epithelial tissue or epithelium is made of one or more sheets of interconnected cells, known as epithelial cells, that cover the surface of organs and vessels and internal cavities of the body [3].

The epithelium is also part of the endocrine and exocrine glands that produce hormones and other substances and is the main component of the skin epidermis.

The epithelial cells have no blood vessels, and therefore, oxygen and nutrients are provided by the conjunctive tissue through basement membranes.

2.1. Epithelial Tissue Types

There are 8 different types of epithelial tissues according to their functions, morphologies, and localization in the body:

• Simple Squamous Epithelium
• Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
• Simple Columnar Epithelium
• Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
• Stratified Squamous tissue
• Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
• Stratified Columnar Epithelium
• Transitional Epithelium

2.1.1. Where Is Simple Squamous Epithelium Found in the Body?

The simple squamous epithelium is made of flat epithelial cells that are found in the lining of vessels, heart, lungs, and lymphatic vessels.

The simple squamous epithelium is permeable which allows the diffusion and filtration of small molecules.

2.1.1. Where Is Simple Cuboidal Epithelium Found in the Body?

The simple cuboidal epithelium is made of cuboidal (cube-like shape) epithelial cells found in the kidneys and small glands. It is involved in absorption and secretion.

2.1.1. Where Is Simple Columnar Epithelium Found in the Body?

The simple columnar epithelium is made of ciliated epithelial cells that are shaped like columns, and that is found in bronchi, digestive tissue, and uterus.

2.1.1. Where Is Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium Found in the Body?

The pseudostratified columnar epithelium is also made of ciliated epithelial cells that are shaped like columns.

However, their nuclei are found in different areas within each cell which makes them different from the simple columnar epithelial cells that have the nucleus at the bottom of the cells.

The pseudostratified columnar epithelium is found in the upper respiratory tract where they secrete and move mucus along the tract through cilia.

2.1.1. Where Is Stratified Squamous Epithelium Found in the Body?

The stratified squamous epithelium is made of layers of flat epithelial cells found in the mouth, esophagus, and vagina where it protects against abrasion.

2.1.1. Where Is Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium Found in the Body?

The stratified cuboidal epithelium is made of layers of cuboid epithelial cells found in mammary glands, salivary glands, and sweat glands where it acts as a protective tissue.

2.1.1. Where Is Stratified Columnar Epithelium Found in the Body?

The stratified columnar epithelium is made of layers of non-ciliated column-shaped epithelial cells found in male urethra and ducts of some glands where they are involved in secretion and have a

2.1.1. Where Is Transitional Epithelium Found in the Body?

The transitional epithelium is made of layers of epithelial cells that have different shapes and that are found in the bladder, urethra, and ureters where they allow these organs to stretch.

3. What Is Muscle Tissue?

The muscle tissue is made of cells and contractile proteins that allow the contraction and relaxation of muscles.

There are 3 types of muscle tissues according to their functions and localization in the body:

• Skeletal Muscle Tissue
• Smooth Muscle Tissue
• Cardiac Muscle Tissue

3.1. What Is Skeletal Muscle Tissue?

The skeletal or striatal muscle is made of elongated cylindrical muscle cells known as muscle fibers (myofibers) that are attached to bones through tendons [4].

Examples of skeletal muscles are the muscles of the arms and legs.

Each muscle fiber is a bundle of fibers arranged in parallel, known as myofibrils, and that are surrounded by collagen.

Myofibrils can be made of thin filaments containing actin or thick filaments made of myosin.

The filaments are known as myofilaments which are arranged in such a way that it alternate light and dark bands, hence the striatal aspect of the muscle.

3.2. What Is Smooth Muscle Tissue?

The smooth muscle tissue is made of smooth muscle cells known as myocytes.

Myocytes are elongated cells with a wide middle and contain proteins such as actin and myosin responsible for their contraction and relaxation.

Smooth muscle tissue is found in organs such as the intestines, stomach, bladder, uterus, and blood vessels.

3.3. What Is Cardiac Muscle Tissue?

The cardiac muscle tissue is what makes the myocardium of the heart, a muscle that is found between the endocardium (inner layer) and the epicardium (outer layer).

The cardiac muscle tissue is made of cardiac cells known as cardiomyocytes that provide the contraction and relaxation of the heart.

Some of the cardiomyocytes, known as peacemaker cells, are responsible for maintaining heartbeats and are found in the atria of the heart.

4. What Is Nervous Tissue?

The nervous tissue is the tissue that makes the nervous system including the peripheral and central nervous systems [5].

The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and the spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes the branching nerves that are outside the brain and the spinal cord.

The nervous tissue is made of neurons that transmit nerves impulses and neuroglia cells that provide support to neurons.

4.1. What Are Neurons and Their Functions?

Neurons are highly specialized cells that transmit nerve impulses (action potentials).

They are made of a cell body, an axon, and an axon terminal.

The cell body contains cell projections known as dendrites.

The axon extends from the cell body and all the way to the axon terminals which are cell projections.

Axons are covered by a sheet made of a fatty substance known as myelin sheet that protects the axon and helps with the transmission of nerve impulses.

Neurons are interconnected through gaps, known as synapses, that are found between a dendrite of one neuron and an axon terminal of another neuron.

Nerve impulses are transmitted from one neuron to another using neurotransmitters that are released from one neuron axon terminal to a dendrite of the following neuron through the synapses.

A neurotransmitter that is released in the synapse by the axon terminal of a neuron is captured by receptors that are specific to the neurotransmitter and that are found on the dendrite of the following neuron.

Once the dendrite of a neuron receives the neurotransmitter, there is a start of a nerve impulse (action potential) that is transmitted along the axon and all the way to the axon terminal where it is transferred to the next neuron.

This process of nerve transmission is known as neurotransmission.

Based on their function, neurons are classified as sensory, motor, or interneurons.

• What Are Sensory Neurons?

Sensory neurons or afferent neurons are neurons that transmit information (e.g., tactile, gustatory, visual, or auditory) from the different organs of the body to the central nervous system.

• What Are Motor Neurons?

Motor neurons or efferent neurons are neurons that transmit information from the nervous central nervous to different organs of the body to initiate an action (e.g., muscle).

• What Are Interneurons?

As their name indicates, interneurons are neurons that serve as neuronal bridges between neurons, such as between sensory or motor neurons and the central nervous system.

4.2. What Are Neuroglia Cells and Their Functions?

Neuroglia cells are not neurons but different types of cells that provide support to neurons and include microglia, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells, and enteric glia [6].

• What are Microglia Cells?

Macroglia cells are macrophages that contribute to the immunity of the central nervous system.

• What Are Astrocytes?

Astrocytes or astroglia are star-shaped cells that have many functions such as providing nutrients to the nervous tissue, repair, and scarification of the brain and spinal cord, support of endothelial cells involved in the blood-brain barrier.

• What Are Oligodendrocytes?

Oligodendrocytes are cells that make the myelin sheet and provide insulation and support for neurons.

• What Are Schwann Cells?

Schwann cells are cells that make the myelin sheet and provide insulation and support for neurons in the peripheral nervous system.

• What Are Enteric Glia Cells?

Enteric glial cells are cells found in the enteric nervous system (gut nervous system) where they may play a role in neurotransmission [7].

In the central nervous system, the brain tissue can also be classified as grey matter and white matter

• What Is Grey Matter?

The grey matter is made of the neurons’ cell bodies, neurons’ unmyelinated axons, neurons’ dendrites, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, synapses, and blood capillaries.

• What Is White Matter?

The white matter is mostly made of myelinated axons of neurons is found in a brain structure known as the corpus callosum which is a tract of fibers located under the cerebral cortex.

Conclusion

Tissues are what make the body, and therefore, taking care of our tissues through a healthy diet, exercise, and a healthy environment can only improve their function and health which will increase the potential of a healthier and longer life.

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Understanding the secrets behind their resilience not only sheds light on the intricacies of cancer biology but also holds promising implications for human health.

From the mysterious case of the naked mole rat to the majestic elephants, exploring these exceptional creatures unveils nature’s ingenious strategies in the battle against cancer.”

I. Understanding Cancer Resistance

A. The Basics of Cancer: Uncontrolled Cell Growth

Cancer begins with a disruption in the tightly regulated process of cell growth and division. Normally, cells in the body follow a carefully orchestrated pattern of growth, division, and death.

However, when genetic mutations or other factors interfere with this process, cells can begin to multiply uncontrollably, forming tumors.

These tumors can invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body, a process known as metastasis.

Understanding the fundamental mechanisms driving this uncontrolled cell growth is essential for deciphering why some mammals exhibit remarkable resistance to cancer.

B. The Role of Genetics: Genetic Predispositions and Susceptibility

Genetics plays a pivotal role in determining an individual’s susceptibility to cancer. Certain genetic mutations can increase the likelihood of developing specific types of cancer.

These mutations may affect genes responsible for regulating cell growth, repairing damaged DNA, or suppressing tumor formation. Interestingly, some mammals possess unique genetic variations that confer inherent resistance to cancer.

By studying these resilient species, scientists can identify key genes and pathways involved in cancer resistance, offering valuable insights into potential therapeutic targets for human cancers.

C. Beyond Genetics: Environmental Factors and Lifestyle Choices

While genetics undoubtedly influence cancer risk, environmental factors and lifestyle choices also play significant roles in determining susceptibility to the disease.

Exposure to carcinogens such as tobacco smoke, ultraviolet radiation, and certain chemicals can increase the likelihood of developing cancer.

Additionally, lifestyle factors such as diet, exercise, and stress management can impact the body’s ability to prevent and combat cancer.

Remarkably, some cancer-resistant mammals inhabit environments rich in carcinogens, suggesting that additional factors beyond genetics contribute to their resilience.

Investigating these environmental and lifestyle influences may uncover novel strategies for cancer prevention and treatment in humans.

II. Evolutionary Insights into Cancer Resistance

A. Darwinian Selection: Survival of the Fittest

Darwinian selection, often referred to as “survival of the fittest,” plays a crucial role in shaping the evolution of species, including their ability to resist diseases like cancer.

In the struggle for survival, individuals with advantageous traits that confer resistance to harmful elements, including cancer, are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on these beneficial traits to future generations.

Over time, this process of natural selection can lead to the emergence of populations with enhanced resistance to cancer.

By studying the evolutionary history of cancer-resistant mammals, scientists gain valuable insights into the selective pressures that have shaped their unique adaptations, paving the way for a deeper understanding of cancer biology and potential therapeutic strategies.

B. Co-evolution with Cancer: Adaptations Over Millennia

Cancer is not a recent phenomenon but has existed throughout evolutionary history. As such, many species have evolved alongside cancer, developing specialized adaptations to mitigate its impact.

This process of co-evolution has led to the emergence of unique mechanisms and strategies for combating cancer in certain mammalian species.

By examining the genetic and physiological adaptations that have evolved over millennia, scientists can uncover novel insights into how these resilient organisms have managed to outpace the relentless threat of cancer.

Understanding the intricate interplay between hosts and their evolving cancers provides valuable lessons for developing innovative approaches to cancer prevention and treatment in humans.

C. Navigating Trade-offs: Balancing Cancer Resistance with Other Traits

Evolutionary adaptations for cancer resistance often involve trade-offs with other biological traits. For example, certain genetic mutations that confer increased resistance to cancer may also have detrimental effects on other aspects of an organism’s health or reproductive fitness.

Balancing these trade-offs is a complex challenge faced by all organisms, including humans. By studying how cancer-resistant mammals have navigated these trade-offs, scientists can gain valuable insights into the genetic and physiological mechanisms underlying cancer resistance.

These insights not only enhance our understanding of cancer biology but also inform efforts to develop more effective strategies for preventing and treating cancer in humans while minimizing potential trade-offs with other aspects of health and well-being.

III. The Remarkable Cases of Cancer-Resistant Mammals

A. The Naked Mole Rat: Defying Aging and Cancer

The naked mole rat has captured the fascination of scientists for its extraordinary longevity and seemingly impervious resistance to cancer.

Despite its small size and relatively simple genetic makeup, this underground-dwelling rodent boasts an astonishing ability to defy both aging and cancer.

Researchers have identified unique physiological traits in naked mole rats that contribute to their remarkable cancer resistance, including high levels of molecular chaperones that help maintain protein integrity and prevent tumor formation.

By unraveling the secrets of these peculiar creatures, scientists hope to uncover novel strategies for combating cancer and extending the human lifespan.

B. Elephants: Giants with Guardian Genes

Elephants, the largest land animals on Earth, possess an unexpected superpower: a heightened ability to suppress cancer.

Despite their massive size and long lifespan, elephants exhibit a remarkably low incidence of cancer compared to humans and other mammals of similar size.

Recent studies have revealed that elephants carry multiple copies of a tumor-suppressing gene called TP53, which plays a crucial role in detecting and repairing damaged DNA.

This genetic adaptation, along with other unique physiological characteristics, enables elephants to effectively ward off cancerous growths.

Understanding how elephants harness their guardian genes offers valuable insights into potential therapeutic strategies for cancer prevention and treatment in humans.

C. Bats, Whales, and Other Surprising Examples

Beyond naked mole rats and elephants, a diverse array of mammalian species exhibit intriguing adaptations for cancer resistance.

Bats, the only flying mammals, possess a unique ability to control inflammation, which may contribute to their lower incidence of cancer despite their long lifespans.

Similarly, certain whale species, known for their immense size and longevity, demonstrate surprisingly low rates of cancer, suggesting the presence of specialized mechanisms for tumor suppression.

From the elusive vampire bat to the majestic blue whale, exploring the unexpected cases of cancer resistance in diverse mammalian species offers valuable insights into the evolutionary strategies for combating this deadly disease.

IV. Unveiling Nature’s Strategies

A. Unusual Genetic Variations: Tumor-Suppressor Genes and Repair Mechanisms

Nature has equipped certain mammals with unusual genetic variations that bestow them with enhanced resistance to cancer.

Among these are unique mutations in tumor-suppressor genes and DNA repair mechanisms, which play critical roles in preventing the unchecked growth of cancer cells.

For instance, the naked mole rat possesses an exceptionally efficient DNA repair system that swiftly corrects DNA damage, reducing the likelihood of mutations that can lead to cancer.

By uncovering these genetic adaptations, researchers gain valuable insights into potential targets for cancer therapies and prevention strategies.

B. Enhanced Immune Surveillance: Mobilizing the Body’s Defenses

Another powerful strategy employed by nature to combat cancer involves enhancing immune surveillance, the body’s ability to detect and eliminate abnormal cells before they can develop into tumors.

Certain mammals exhibit heightened immune responses that enable them to recognize and destroy cancerous cells more effectively.

For example, elephants possess an abundance of natural killer cells and other immune components that contribute to their robust anti-cancer defenses.

Understanding how these mammals bolster their immune surveillance holds immense promise for developing immunotherapies and vaccines to bolster human immune systems against cancer.

C. Unique Physiological Characteristics: Metabolic and Structural Adaptations

In addition to genetic and immune-based mechanisms, nature has endowed cancer-resistant mammals with unique physiological characteristics that confer protection against the disease.

These adaptations encompass a wide range of metabolic and structural features that create hostile environments for cancer cells to thrive.

For instance, certain bat species exhibit enhanced antioxidant defenses and efficient DNA repair mechanisms, which help mitigate cellular damage and reduce cancer risk.

By unraveling the intricacies of these physiological adaptations, researchers can identify novel pathways and targets for developing innovative cancer treatments that mimic nature’s strategies for resilience.

V. Insights for Human Health

A. Lessons from Nature: Translating Discoveries into Therapies

Nature has long been a source of inspiration for medical breakthroughs, and the study of cancer-resistant mammals is no exception.

By delving into the genetic, immune, and physiological adaptations of these resilient creatures, scientists glean valuable insights that can be translated into innovative cancer therapies for humans.

From identifying novel drug targets to developing immunotherapies and gene-editing techniques, the lessons learned from nature’s strategies hold immense promise for revolutionizing cancer treatment and improving patient outcomes.

B. Targeting Cancer Resistance Mechanisms: A Promising Frontier in Research

Understanding the mechanisms underlying cancer resistance in certain mammals opens up new avenues for research and discovery.

By pinpointing the genetic, molecular, and cellular pathways that confer protection against cancer, scientists can develop targeted therapies designed to disrupt these mechanisms in human tumors.

From exploiting vulnerabilities in cancer cells to enhancing the body’s natural defenses, targeting cancer resistance mechanisms represents a promising frontier in the quest to conquer cancer and save lives.

C. Lifestyle Implications: How Human Behavior Can Impact Cancer Risk

While genetics and biology play significant roles in cancer risk, lifestyle factors also exert a profound influence on disease development and progression.

From diet and exercise to smoking and sun exposure, human behaviors can either increase or decrease the likelihood of developing cancer.

By adopting healthy habits and minimizing exposure to carcinogens, individuals can significantly reduce their risk of cancer and improve overall health outcomes.

Moreover, insights gleaned from studying cancer-resistant mammals underscore the importance of lifestyle interventions in cancer prevention and highlight the potential for personalized approaches to managing cancer risk based on individual genetic and environmental factors.

VI. Future Directions and Challenges

A. Harnessing Nature’s Secrets: Opportunities and Obstacles

As scientists continue to unravel the mysteries of cancer resistance in mammals, they are presented with both opportunities and obstacles in harnessing nature’s secrets for human benefit.

The identification of novel therapeutic targets and treatment strategies holds immense promise for improving cancer outcomes. However, translating these discoveries into effective therapies faces challenges such as scalability, safety, and efficacy.

Nevertheless, with advancements in technology and a deeper understanding of cancer biology, researchers are optimistic about overcoming these obstacles and unlocking the full potential of nature-inspired cancer treatments.

B. Ethical Considerations: Balancing Scientific Progress with Animal Welfare

Exploring cancer resistance in mammals raises important ethical considerations regarding the use of animals in scientific research.

While studying these creatures offers valuable insights into cancer biology and potential treatments, it also raises questions about animal welfare and ethical treatment.

Balancing scientific progress with ethical considerations requires thoughtful deliberation and adherence to strict guidelines for the humane treatment of animals.

Collaborative efforts between researchers, ethicists, and animal welfare organizations are essential for ensuring that scientific advancements are achieved responsibly and ethically.

C. Collaborative Efforts: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Tackle Cancer

Tackling cancer requires a collaborative and interdisciplinary approach that brings together experts from various fields, including biology, medicine, genetics, engineering, and ethics.

By fostering collaboration and sharing knowledge across disciplines, researchers can accelerate progress in understanding cancer biology, developing new treatments, and addressing ethical concerns.

Collaborative efforts also facilitate the translation of basic research findings into clinical applications, ultimately improving patient outcomes.

As the fight against cancer continues, interdisciplinary collaboration will be essential for overcoming challenges, driving innovation, and ultimately conquering this devastating disease.

VII. Frequently Asked Questions about Why Are Some Mammals More Resistant to Cancer?

Why are some mammals more resistant to cancer?

Some mammals exhibit remarkable resistance to cancer due to a combination of genetic, immune, and physiological adaptations.

These adaptations enable certain species to effectively suppress tumor formation and progression, offering valuable insights into potential strategies for cancer prevention and treatment in humans.

Which mammals are known for their resistance to cancer?

Several mammals have gained attention for their exceptional cancer resistance, including the naked mole rat, elephants, bats, and certain whale species. Each of these animals possesses unique genetic, immune, or physiological traits that contribute to their ability to ward off cancer.

What genetic factors contribute to cancer resistance in mammals?

Genetic factors play a crucial role in cancer resistance, with certain mammals carrying mutations in tumor-suppressor genes or DNA repair mechanisms that help prevent the development of cancerous growths.

For example, elephants have multiple copies of the TP53 gene, which is known to suppress tumor formation.

How do lifestyle choices impact cancer resistance in mammals?

While genetics are a significant factor, lifestyle choices can also influence cancer resistance in mammals.

Healthy behaviors such as regular exercise, a balanced diet, and avoiding exposure to carcinogens can help reduce the risk of cancer by supporting the body’s natural defenses and promoting overall health.

What can we learn from studying cancer-resistant mammals?

Studying cancer-resistant mammals offers valuable insights into the genetic, immune, and physiological mechanisms underlying cancer resistance.

These insights can inform the development of new cancer therapies, biomarkers for early detection, and personalized prevention strategies tailored to individual genetic and environmental factors.

Conclusion

The remarkable resilience of certain mammals to cancer sheds light on the intricate interplay of genetics, immune function, and physiological adaptations in thwarting this disease.

By uncovering the secrets of nature’s cancer fighters, researchers are poised to revolutionize cancer prevention, diagnosis, and treatment for humans.

With continued exploration and collaboration, harnessing the insights gleaned from these resilient creatures holds immense promise for a future where cancer is no longer an insurmountable challenge.

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During the process of aging, the function of beneficial microbes, that provide necessary nutrients for the body tissues, are severely affected, while harmful microbes, that contribute to the process, such as chronic inflammation and cancer, flourish [1][2][3][4][5].

What Evidence Supports the Role of the Gut Flora in Longevity?

Several in vivo studies demonstrated that fecal microbiota transplantation from younger mice (Donor) to older (Recipient) enhanced their health and lifespan. This procedure led to the restoration of healthy microbiota in the recipient suggesting its potential application in the field of longevity.

These conclusions are reinforced through the study of progeria mice, a model characterized by an advanced aging process and that has dysfunctional gut flora (Dysbiosis), like that of progeria patients. The researchers demonstrated that fecal microbiota transplantation from wild-type mice enhanced health span and lifespan in progeroid mouse models [6].

What Bacteria Are found in the Gut?

The gut contains about 1000 species of bacteria and the most dominant species are Bacteroides, Fusobacterium, Eubacterium, Ruminococcus, Peptococcus, Peptostreptococcus, Bifidobacterium, and Clostridium.

What Are the Good Bacteria in the Gut?

The gut’s most known “good bacteria” are Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, also known as probiotics. These bacteria help other gut bacteria by providing them with nutrients that are commonly known as prebiotics [7].

What Are the Health Benefits of Good Bacteria?

Probiotics have been shown to prevent symptoms of allergies, diabetes type 2 (Diabetes Miletus), autoimmune diseases, rheumatoid arthritis, cancer, diarrhea, constipation, irritable bowel syndrome, Crohn’s disease, and obesity.

Because they produce lactic acid, Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium also suppress pathogens in healthy individuals through induction of immunomodulatory molecules with antagonistic effects [8].

What food Help Good Bacteria in the Gut?

To help the growth of good bacteria in the gut, you can consume products that contain probiotics, prebiotics, or both:

1- Probiotics Food

Probiotics are found in yogurt, lactobacillus milk, some cheeses such as Gouda, cheddar, cottage cheese, mozzarella, pickles, sauerkraut, kefir, kimchi, tempeh, kombucha, and miso.

2- Prebiotic food

Prebiotics are found in carrots, quinoa, radishes, onions, chicory roots, konjac roots, oats, yams, garlic, barley, wheat bran, berries, apples, asparagus, bananas, leeks, chia seeds, flax seeds, cocoa, coconut, jicama root, and dandelion greens.

How Does Prebiotics Help Good Bacteria in the Gut?

The most common prebiotics are fructooligosaccharides, galactooligosaccharides, and trans-galactooligosaccharides, but other prebiotics plays important roles in health and aging such as insulin enriched-oligofructose, lactulose, and oligofructose.

They are indigestible carbohydrates that are fermented and broken down by probiotics to obtain survival energy, and short-chain fatty acids such as lactic acid, butyric acid, and propionic acid [8].

How Does Prebiotics Maintain health and protect against Diseases?

1- Prebiotics’ Effects on Gastrointestinal Disorders

The administration of the prebiotic fructo-oligosaccharides to patients diagnosed with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) or Crohn’s disease (CD) has been shown to significantly improve the symptoms of the two disorders in randomized double-blind, and placebo-controlled clinical trials [9][10].

Additionally, symbiotic therapy using Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium has been shown to reduce the risk of colorectal cancer by inhibiting the proliferation of colorectal cancer cells [11].

2- Prebiotics’ Effects on the Immune System

Prebiotics induce the expression of cytokines that promote communication between immune cells leading to improved immune response and protection against infections and other diseases such as cancer and neurodegenerative diseases.

Several studies showed that the administration of fructo-oligosaccharides improves antibody response to viral vaccines [12][13], upregulates toll-like receptor 2-mediated immune response [14], and increased phagocytosis, and the levels of NK cells and the anti-inflammatory IL-10 [15].

3- Prebiotics’ Effects on the Nervous System

The administration of prebiotics such as non-starch polysaccharides was shown to improve the performance of working and recognition memory and cognitive functions [16][17], while another prebiotic known as insulin enriched-oligofructose enhances mood and immediate memory [18]. Lactulose was also shown to improve cognitive function and health-related quality of life [19].

4- Prebiotics’ Effects on the Cardio-vascular System

The prebiotics inulin has been shown to reduce cardiovascular diseases by reducing the levels of HDL-cholesterol, triglycerides, and lipoprotein A [20], while lactulose reduces the concentrations of free fatty acids that are originated from colon absorption [21].

5- Prebiotics’ Effects on the Skin

The administration of galactooligosaccharides with and without probiotics was shown to prevent the reduction in water and keratin caused by phenols that denatures proteins and disrupt disulfide bridges in the skin keratin [22]. 

Conclusion

The gut flora is essential for health, aging, and longevity and its unbalance (Dysbiosis) can lead to severe health consequences through the lack of availability of quality nutrients that are necessary for preventing diseases such as infections, cardiovascular diseases, nervous system, gastrointestinal, skin, and immune disorders that significantly promote aging, reduces the quality of life, and shorten longevity.

Therefore, the consumption of probiotics and prebiotics can considerably prevent these consequences and ensure a longer and high quality of life.

References

[1] Leulier, F. et al. Integrative physiology: at the crossroads of nutrition, microbiota, animal physiology and human health. Cell Metab. 25, 522–534 (2017).

[2] Koeth, R. A. et al. Intestinal microbiota metabolism of L-carnitine, a nutrient in red meat, promotes atherosclerosis. Nat. Med. 19, 576–585 (2013).

[3] Loomba, R. et al. Gut microbiome-based metagenomic signature for non-invasive detection of advanced fibrosis in human nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Cell Metab. 25, 1054–1062 (2017).

[4] Qin, J. et al. A metagenome-wide association study of gut microbiota in type 2 diabetes. Nature 490, 55–60 (2012).

[5] Zitvogel, L., Daillere, R., Roberti, M. P., Routy, B. & Kroemer, G. Anticancer effects of the microbiome and its products. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 15, 465–478 (2017).

[6] Bárcena, Clea, et al. “Healthspan and lifespan extension by fecal microbiota transplantation into progeroid mice.” Nature medicine 25.8 (2019): 1234-1242.

[7] Wang, H., Wei, C.X., Min, L. and Zhu, L.Y., 2018. Good or bad: gut bacteria in human health and diseases. Biotechnology & Biotechnological Equipment, 32(5), pp.1075-1080.

[8] Davani-Davari, D., Negahdaripour, M., Karimzadeh, I., Seifan, M., Mohkam, M., Masoumi, S.J., Berenjian, A. and Ghasemi, Y., 2019. Prebiotics: definition, types, sources, mechanisms, and clinical applications. Foods, 8(3), p.92.

[9] Lindsay, J.O., Whelan, K., Stagg, A.J., Gobin, P., Al-Hassi, H.O., Rayment, N., Kamm, M.A., Knight, S.C. and Forbes, A., 2006. Clinical, microbiological, and immunological effects of fructo-oligosaccharide in patients with Crohn’s disease. Gut, 55(3), pp.348-355.

[10] Silk, D.B.A., Davis, A., Vulevic, J., Tzortzis, G. and Gibson, G.R., 2009. Clinical trial: the effects of a trans‐galactooligosaccharide prebiotic on faecal microbiota and symptoms in irritable bowel syndrome. Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics, 29(5), pp.508-518.

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