Explicit Memories are long-term memories that are stored in the following brain structures:

• Hippocampus
• Neocortex
• Amygdala

Implicit Memories are long-term memories that are stored in the following brain structures:

• Basal Ganglia
• Cerebellum

Working Memory and short-term memory are stored in the following brain structure:

• Prefrontal Cortex

1. What Is Memory?

Memory is the faculty of processing, storing, and remembering experiences and knowledge. It is what makes us and what makes our identity.

Memories are processed, stored, and reactivated in specific neurons that interact with each other through synapses which are known as synaptic plasticity.

Memories are made stronger or weaker depending on dynamic interactions between these groups of specialized neurons.

Memory is divided into short-term memory or working memory and long-term memory which includes explicit and implicit memories.

2. What Does It Mean to Have an Explicit Memory?

Explicit memories are conscious memories that recall events that happen to us (episodic memories) or that recall general knowledge of the world (semantic memories).

They are formed and stored in a specific group of neurons found in the hippocampus, neocortex, and amygdala.

2.1. What Does the Hippocampus Do for Memory?

The hippocampus is the structure of the brain where episodic memories are formed and stored. It is situated in the temporal lobe of the brain.

In addition to its role in long-term memory, the hippocampus is also involved in learning, flexible and goal-oriented behavior, navigation, and spatial orientation.

The hippocampus is also one of the two areas of the adult brain where there is still the production of new neurons (hippocampal neurons) due to the presence of neural stem cells.

2.2. What Does the Neocortex Do for Memory?

The neocortex serves as a storage area for temporary memories provided by the hippocampus and that are stored in a form of semantic memories.

It is the largest part of the cerebral cortex and is also involved in sensory perception (perception of outside stimuli), spatial reasoning, language, and the planning, control, and execution of voluntary movement.

2.3. What Does the Amygdala Do for Memory?

The amygdala is an almond-shaped structure of the brain’s temporal lobe involved in the formation and storage of emotional and fear-associated memories.

In addition to its role in memory, the amygdala is also involved in emotional responses (e.g., fear and anxiety) and decision-making in response to external stimuli.

3. What is Implicit Memory?

Implicit memories are unconscious or automatic memories that do not require conscious or voluntary recall to influence our behavior.

Implicit memories are divided into priming memories and procedural memories:

• Priming Memories

A priming memory is an unconscious improvement or change in dealing with a stimulus because of a previous experience with the same or a related stimulus [2].

• Procedural Memories

Procedural memory is associated with performing tasks without being consciously aware of doing them. An example is the capacity of riding a bike even if we did not cycle for a long period.

Implicit memories are formed and stored in a specific group of neurons found in the basal ganglia and cerebellum.

3.1. What Does Basal Ganglia Do for Memory?

Basal ganglia are structures resting deep within the brain and are involved in the storage of procedural memories [3].

Basal ganglia are also involved in many functions of the brain, including cognition, emotion, procedural learning, conditional learning, habit learning, and control of voluntary motor movements.

3.2. What Does the Cerebellum Do for Memory?

The cerebellum is situated at the back of the brain and is involved in procedural memory but also in motor learning and classical conditioning.

In addition, the cerebellum is involved in controlling the body balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills.

4. What Is Working Memory?

Working memory is a temporary storage of a small amount of information ready for immediate mental use [4].

5. What Is Short-Term Memory?

Working memory is a temporary storage of a small amount of information without manipulation of the information stored [5].

Theoretical concepts differentiate between working memory and short-term memory as short-term memory is suggested to refer to the maintenance while working memory involves a combination of maintenance and manipulation of information.

However, correlational studies have not been able to separate between working memory and short-term memory [5].

Working memory and short-term memory are mediated by the prefrontal cortex.

4.1. What Does the Prefrontal Cortex Do for Memory?

The prefrontal cortex is situated at the front part of the frontal lobe and is involved in the storage of a small amount of information.

In addition, the prefrontal cortex is involved in many functions of the brain, including executive processes (differentiating between conflicting thoughts), information processing, attention, judgment, behavioral organization, and certain aspects of language and speech [6].

5. What Are the Types of Memory Loss?

Memory loss is known as amnesia which can be caused by head or emotional trauma, Alzheimer’s disease, brain tumor, alcoholism, seizures, encephalitis, or stroke [7]. There are several types of amnesia:

• Retrograde Amnesia
• Anterograde Amnesia
• Post-Traumatic Amnesia
• Transient Global Amnesia
• Dissociative Amnesia
• Infantile Amnesia

5.1. What Is Retrograde Amnesia?

Retrograde amnesia is the incapacity to recall events or information from the past.

5.2. What Is Anterograde Amnesia?

Anterograde amnesia is the incapacity to recall new events or information following an amnesia incident.

5.3. What Is Post-Traumatic Amnesia?

Post-traumatic amnesia is a state of confusion associated with to incapacity to recall new events or information immediately after a traumatic incident.

5.4. What Is Transient Global Amnesia?

Transient global amnesia is a temporary sudden and total loss of short-term memory.

5.4. What Is Dissociative Amnesia?

Dissociative amnesia is the incapacity to recall personal information following trauma or stress.

5.5. What Is Infantile Amnesia?

Infantile amnesia is the incapacity to recall events or information from childhood.

Conclusion

Memory is a complex process that involves several parts of the brain that process, store, and reactivate conscious and unconscious information from the past and when we need them. Without memories, it is impossible to know who we are, what we are doing, and what we are planning to do.

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• Connective Tissue
• Epithelial Tissue
• Muscle Tissue
• Nervous Tissue

1. What Is a Connective Tissue?

Connective tissue provides structure, support, protection, and connection to other tissues and organs of the body [1].

1.1. What Are the 3 Types of Connective Tissue?

Connective tissue is made of fibers, gelatinous-like substances, and cells, and is divided into 3 types of tissues: loose connective tissue, dense connective tissue, and specialized connective tissue.

1.1.1. Where Is Loose Connective Tissue Found and What Is Its Function?

Loose connective tissue is found in almost every part of the body where it maintains organs in place.

It is made of an extracellular matrix and fibers of collagen, elastin, and reticulum.

• What Is Extracellular Matrix?

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a complex network made of macromolecules and minerals, including collagen, elastin, glycoproteins, laminin, fibronectin, hydroxyapatite, and enzymes [2].

The extracellular matrix is found between the different cells of the body where it works as a structural scaffold and serves as membranous support where cells stand.

Glycoproteins are a type of protein involved in the interactions between and within cells.

Laminin is made of glycoproteins and collagen that form a membrane where the cells stand. This type of membrane is known as the basement membrane.

Fibronectin is a glycoprotein that works like a biological glue that connects the cells to the extracellular matrix through its interaction with proteins known as integrins found on the surface of cells.

Hydroxyapatite is also known as the bone mineral is made of calcium and phosphorus. It is mostly found in the bone and teeth connective tissues.

Enzymes are proteins that work as a catalyst through reactions that produce products necessary for the function of cells and tissues.

What Are Collagen Fibers?

Collagen is made by cells known as fibroblasts and is assembled into fibrils that make the collagen fibers.

Collagen fibers provide structural support for the cells of the extracellular matrix.

What Are Collagen Fibers?

What Are Elastin Fibers?

Elastin fibers are fibers that provide elasticity to the tissues.

What Are Reticular Fibers?

Reticular fibers are a type of collagen made by reticular cells. They form a supportive network for soft tissues such as the liver, bone marrow, and lymphatic system.

1.1.2. Where Is Dense Connective Tissue Found and What Is Its Function?

Dense Connective Tissue is what makes the tendons and ligaments. It also provides structure, support, protection, and connectivity.

Dense Connective Tissue is also made of extracellular matrix and fibers of collagen, elastin, and reticulum.

1.1.3. What Is Specialized Connective Tissue and What Is Its Function?

Specialized connective tissues include the blood, bone, cartilage, and adipose tissue.

Blood is a bodily fluid that provides oxygen and nutrients to tissues and organs of the body. It also collects metabolic waste away from the cells. It is made of red blood cells and plasma.

The bone is a hard connective tissue (support and connect tissues) that contains a honey-comb shaped structure made of a mineralized matrix and bone cells.

Cartilage is a gelatinous-like substance that is found in body parts such as joints, rib cage, ears, nose, intervertebral discs, and bronchial tubes.

The Adipose tissue is a specialized tissue that stores fat and insulates the body.

2. What Is Epithelial Tissue?

Epithelial tissue or epithelium is made of one or more sheets of interconnected cells, known as epithelial cells, that cover the surface of organs and vessels and internal cavities of the body [3].

The epithelium is also part of the endocrine and exocrine glands that produce hormones and other substances and is the main component of the skin epidermis.

The epithelial cells have no blood vessels, and therefore, oxygen and nutrients are provided by the conjunctive tissue through basement membranes.

2.1. Epithelial Tissue Types

There are 8 different types of epithelial tissues according to their functions, morphologies, and localization in the body:

• Simple Squamous Epithelium
• Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
• Simple Columnar Epithelium
• Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
• Stratified Squamous tissue
• Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
• Stratified Columnar Epithelium
• Transitional Epithelium

2.1.1. Where Is Simple Squamous Epithelium Found in the Body?

The simple squamous epithelium is made of flat epithelial cells that are found in the lining of vessels, heart, lungs, and lymphatic vessels.

The simple squamous epithelium is permeable which allows the diffusion and filtration of small molecules.

2.1.1. Where Is Simple Cuboidal Epithelium Found in the Body?

The simple cuboidal epithelium is made of cuboidal (cube-like shape) epithelial cells found in the kidneys and small glands. It is involved in absorption and secretion.

2.1.1. Where Is Simple Columnar Epithelium Found in the Body?

The simple columnar epithelium is made of ciliated epithelial cells that are shaped like columns, and that is found in bronchi, digestive tissue, and uterus.

2.1.1. Where Is Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium Found in the Body?

The pseudostratified columnar epithelium is also made of ciliated epithelial cells that are shaped like columns.

However, their nuclei are found in different areas within each cell which makes them different from the simple columnar epithelial cells that have the nucleus at the bottom of the cells.

The pseudostratified columnar epithelium is found in the upper respiratory tract where they secrete and move mucus along the tract through cilia.

2.1.1. Where Is Stratified Squamous Epithelium Found in the Body?

The stratified squamous epithelium is made of layers of flat epithelial cells found in the mouth, esophagus, and vagina where it protects against abrasion.

2.1.1. Where Is Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium Found in the Body?

The stratified cuboidal epithelium is made of layers of cuboid epithelial cells found in mammary glands, salivary glands, and sweat glands where it acts as a protective tissue.

2.1.1. Where Is Stratified Columnar Epithelium Found in the Body?

The stratified columnar epithelium is made of layers of non-ciliated column-shaped epithelial cells found in male urethra and ducts of some glands where they are involved in secretion and have a

2.1.1. Where Is Transitional Epithelium Found in the Body?

The transitional epithelium is made of layers of epithelial cells that have different shapes and that are found in the bladder, urethra, and ureters where they allow these organs to stretch.

3. What Is Muscle Tissue?

The muscle tissue is made of cells and contractile proteins that allow the contraction and relaxation of muscles.

There are 3 types of muscle tissues according to their functions and localization in the body:

• Skeletal Muscle Tissue
• Smooth Muscle Tissue
• Cardiac Muscle Tissue

3.1. What Is Skeletal Muscle Tissue?

The skeletal or striatal muscle is made of elongated cylindrical muscle cells known as muscle fibers (myofibers) that are attached to bones through tendons [4].

Examples of skeletal muscles are the muscles of the arms and legs.

Each muscle fiber is a bundle of fibers arranged in parallel, known as myofibrils, and that are surrounded by collagen.

Myofibrils can be made of thin filaments containing actin or thick filaments made of myosin.

The filaments are known as myofilaments which are arranged in such a way that it alternate light and dark bands, hence the striatal aspect of the muscle.

3.2. What Is Smooth Muscle Tissue?

The smooth muscle tissue is made of smooth muscle cells known as myocytes.

Myocytes are elongated cells with a wide middle and contain proteins such as actin and myosin responsible for their contraction and relaxation.

Smooth muscle tissue is found in organs such as the intestines, stomach, bladder, uterus, and blood vessels.

3.3. What Is Cardiac Muscle Tissue?

The cardiac muscle tissue is what makes the myocardium of the heart, a muscle that is found between the endocardium (inner layer) and the epicardium (outer layer).

The cardiac muscle tissue is made of cardiac cells known as cardiomyocytes that provide the contraction and relaxation of the heart.

Some of the cardiomyocytes, known as peacemaker cells, are responsible for maintaining heartbeats and are found in the atria of the heart.

4. What Is Nervous Tissue?

The nervous tissue is the tissue that makes the nervous system including the peripheral and central nervous systems [5].

The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and the spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes the branching nerves that are outside the brain and the spinal cord.

The nervous tissue is made of neurons that transmit nerves impulses and neuroglia cells that provide support to neurons.

4.1. What Are Neurons and Their Functions?

Neurons are highly specialized cells that transmit nerve impulses (action potentials).

They are made of a cell body, an axon, and an axon terminal.

The cell body contains cell projections known as dendrites.

The axon extends from the cell body and all the way to the axon terminals which are cell projections.

Axons are covered by a sheet made of a fatty substance known as myelin sheet that protects the axon and helps with the transmission of nerve impulses.

Neurons are interconnected through gaps, known as synapses, that are found between a dendrite of one neuron and an axon terminal of another neuron.

Nerve impulses are transmitted from one neuron to another using neurotransmitters that are released from one neuron axon terminal to a dendrite of the following neuron through the synapses.

A neurotransmitter that is released in the synapse by the axon terminal of a neuron is captured by receptors that are specific to the neurotransmitter and that are found on the dendrite of the following neuron.

Once the dendrite of a neuron receives the neurotransmitter, there is a start of a nerve impulse (action potential) that is transmitted along the axon and all the way to the axon terminal where it is transferred to the next neuron.

This process of nerve transmission is known as neurotransmission.

Based on their function, neurons are classified as sensory, motor, or interneurons.

• What Are Sensory Neurons?

Sensory neurons or afferent neurons are neurons that transmit information (e.g., tactile, gustatory, visual, or auditory) from the different organs of the body to the central nervous system.

• What Are Motor Neurons?

Motor neurons or efferent neurons are neurons that transmit information from the nervous central nervous to different organs of the body to initiate an action (e.g., muscle).

• What Are Interneurons?

As their name indicates, interneurons are neurons that serve as neuronal bridges between neurons, such as between sensory or motor neurons and the central nervous system.

4.2. What Are Neuroglia Cells and Their Functions?

Neuroglia cells are not neurons but different types of cells that provide support to neurons and include microglia, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells, and enteric glia [6].

• What are Microglia Cells?

Macroglia cells are macrophages that contribute to the immunity of the central nervous system.

• What Are Astrocytes?

Astrocytes or astroglia are star-shaped cells that have many functions such as providing nutrients to the nervous tissue, repair, and scarification of the brain and spinal cord, support of endothelial cells involved in the blood-brain barrier.

• What Are Oligodendrocytes?

Oligodendrocytes are cells that make the myelin sheet and provide insulation and support for neurons.

• What Are Schwann Cells?

Schwann cells are cells that make the myelin sheet and provide insulation and support for neurons in the peripheral nervous system.

• What Are Enteric Glia Cells?

Enteric glial cells are cells found in the enteric nervous system (gut nervous system) where they may play a role in neurotransmission [7].

In the central nervous system, the brain tissue can also be classified as grey matter and white matter

• What Is Grey Matter?

The grey matter is made of the neurons’ cell bodies, neurons’ unmyelinated axons, neurons’ dendrites, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, synapses, and blood capillaries.

• What Is White Matter?

The white matter is mostly made of myelinated axons of neurons is found in a brain structure known as the corpus callosum which is a tract of fibers located under the cerebral cortex.

Conclusion

Tissues are what make the body, and therefore, taking care of our tissues through a healthy diet, exercise, and a healthy environment can only improve their function and health which will increase the potential of a healthier and longer life.

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In addition to its role in controlling touch, the somatosensory cortex is also involved in sensing temperature, pain, and body position and movement.

The somatosensory cortex is divided into 4 regions known as Brodmann’s areas 3a, 3b, 1, and 2. Area 3b is also known as the primary somatosensory cortex or S1 [1].

• The neurons in area 3b and 1 are involved processing tactile (touch) information.

• The neurons in the area 3a are involved in processing information associated with the stimulation of proprioceptors found in muscles, joints, and tendons.

Proprioceptors are receptors that detect the forces (in the form of sensations) that are exerted on muscles, tendons, and joints.

• The neurons in the area 2 are involved in sensing both tactile information and the stimulation of proprioceptors.

The somatosensory cortex receives tactile information from sensory neurons that are connected to sensory receptors found in the skin, muscle, tendons, and joints.

There are 3 types of sensory neurons that send tactile information to the somatosensory cortex:

• First-order neurons

These neurons have their cell body in the spinal cord with one axon extending to connect with proprioceptors (mechanoreceptors) and the other axon extending to connect with a second-order neuron through the synapse.

• Second-order neurons

These are generally sensory nerves such as cranial nerves or trigeminal ganglia (part of the trigeminal nerve) that have their cell body in the spinal cord or the brainstem.

• Third-order neurons

These neurons have their body in the ventral posterior nucleus of the thalamus and extend their axons to the somatosensory cortex.

The ventral posterior nucleus serves as a relay for the transmission of tactile information.

1. Where Does the Sense of Touch Takes Place?

The sense of touch takes place in the skin through sensory receptors found in the skin.

2. What Are the 4 Touch Receptors?

They are 4 types of touch receptors including Merkel’s Disks, Meissner’s Corpuscles, Ruffini Endings, and Pacinian Corpuscle [2].

Once activated by touch, the receptors convert the tactile information (mechanical stimuli) into action potential that is transmitted by neurotransmission through first-order, second-order, and third-order neurons

• Merkel’s Disks

Merkel’s Disks are receptors found in the basal layer of the epidermis of non-hairy skin (e.g., fingertips) and have the capacity to sense corners, curves, and edges.

• Meissner’s Corpuscles

These receptors are also known as Wagner-Meissner corpuscles or tactile corpuscles. They are found in the dermal papillae of the thick non-hairy skin (glabrous skin) such as the skin of the sole and palm.

They are neurons endings involved in sensing fine touch and low-frequency vibrations [3].

• Ruffini Endings

These receptors are found in hairy skin and are activated by the stretching of the skin.

• Pacinian Corpuscle

These receptors are also known as Vater-Pacini corpuscle and lamellar corpuscle. They are mechanoreceptors (mechanical sensations) found in hairy and non-hairy skins and involved in sensing vibrations.

Touch receptors are also classified based on their adaptability to dynamic changes in the skin.

Pacinian corpuscle receptors have very rapid adaptability, while Meissner’s Corpuscles have rapid adaptability and Ruffini corpuscle, Merkel disks have slow adaptability.

3. What Are the Different Types of Touch Senses?

The different types of touch senses are classified into light touch, pressure, pleasant touch, vibration, temperature, and pain.

This classification is based on the type of receptor involved and the intensity of their sensitivity

Light Touch

A light touch is also known as protective touch as it is immediately set something that brushes the skin such as tickling.

Pressure

These receptors are activated when there is pressure or squeeze of the skin.

Pleasant Touch

This type of touch differentiates between pleasant and unpleasant touch.

Vibration

This type of touch is associated with the sensing of low-frequency vibrations.

Temperature

This type of touch is associated with the sensing of cold, hot, or warm objects.

Pain

This is due to the stimulation of nerves ends by noxious stimuli such as prolonged pressure or chemicals.

4. Are There Disorders of the Sense of Touch?

Disorders of the sense of touch are associated with the loss of sensitivity, the intensity of the sensitivity, and the capacity of recognizing the objects being sensed by touch.

They are caused by lesions affecting the somatosensory pathways, neurological diseases such as dementia, and chronic diseases such as diabetes.

Below are some of the disorders associated with touch:

• Astereognosis

This disorder is characterized by the inability to identify objects by touch only. It is caused by lesions in the post-central gyrus [4].

• Hyperesthesia

Hyperesthesia is characterized by an increased sensitivity to stimuli associated with senses such as hearing, tasting, touch, smelling. It is caused by excessive stimulation of the nervous system such as overconsumption of caffeine.

• Allodynia

Allodynia is a pain that is caused by a stimulus that is not the one that initiated the pain, such as feeling pain after a gentle shake of hands or light touch on the back.

• Analgesia

Analgesia is characterized by the inability to feel the pain caused by a stimulus (cause) that should normally have caused pain.

• Paraesthesia

This disorder is characterized by an abnormal sensation of the skin such as numbness, tingling, burning, chilling.

• Hypoesthesia

This disorder is characterized by a decrease in the sensation of touch associated with nerve damage, ischemia (reduced blood supply to tissues).

• Hypoalgesia

Unlike analgesia that characterized by the inability to feel pain, hypoalgesia is associated with a reduced response to a painful stimulus.

• Hyperalgesia

Hyperalgesia is characterized by an abnormally increased sensitivity to pain due to the release of inflammatory hormone-like substances, known as prostaglandins, that increase the sensitivity of the nociceptors.

Hyperalgesia can be caused by fibromyalgia, diabetes, infection, trauma, postherpetic neuralgia, and complex regional pain syndrome.

Conclusion

The touch sensory system is very complex and sophisticated thanks to the presence of highly specialized touch receptors that have a wide range of sensitivity and intensity.

This system provides us with the capacity of sensing cold, warm, and hot objects but also shapes and curves, and vibrations’ frequencies.

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1- What Are Omega 3 Fatty Acids?

Lipids or fats are made from saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Omega 3 fatty acids are a type of fatty acids known as polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Omega 3 Fatty Acids are also divided into docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), linolenic acid (ALA), and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA).

Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) is the principal constituent of the plasma membrane of neurons found in the brain and cerebral cortex. It is also found in the retina and skin.

Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) is essential for the synthesis of the vasodilator, anticoagulant, and inflammatory hormone, Prostaglandin (PG). It is also essential critical for the synthesis of the pro-coagulation and thrombosis factor, thromboxane, and the inflammation mediators, leukotrienes.

Linolenic Acid (ALA) is involved in the regulation of blood lipids and endothelial (Vessels) function. It has also significant anti-inflammatory and anti-thrombotic effects.

2- Which Types of Omega-3 Fatty Acids Are Found in Fish?

Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) and Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) are found in fatty fish such as salmon, tuna, herring, mackerel, sardine, and fish oils,

Linolenic Acid (ALA) is found in fish but in flaxseed, chia, walnuts, hemp, and vegetable oils.

3- Omega 3 Benefits for the Brain

Omega 3 fatty acids are present in the membrane of brain cells (neurons) and are protecting factors of the nervous system [1]. These are some of the functions of omega 3 fatty acids in the brain:

• Omega 3 Fatty Acids and Neurotransmission

Neurotransmission is the process of transmission of information between the brain and the other parts of the body.

This transmission is carried out by neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, GABA, along the neurons.

Neurotransmitters travel from one neuron to another through synapses; however, to do so they must be transported by membranous vesicles that are made essentially made of omega 3 fatty acids [2].

• Omega 3 Fatty Acids and Neurogenesis

Neurogenesis is a process of making neurons and other types of brain cells that begins during embryonic life and that continue in certain parts of the adult brain such as the hippocampus and the subventricular zone of the cerebral cortex.

The hippocampus is the part of the brain that is involved in memory and the subventricular zone is implicated in olfaction (sensation of smell).

Omega 3 fatty acids are necessary for the production of new hippocampal neurons and olfactory neurons as they are essential for the formation of the membranes of the new neurons.

• Omega 3 Fatty Acids and Membrane Receptor Function

Omega 3 fatty acids have been shown to regulate the activity of the adenosine A_2A and dopamine D₂ receptors that are found on neurons, and which modulate the function of the neurotransmitters, glutamate, and dopamine [3].

• Omega 3 Fatty Acids and Synaptic Plasticity

Neurotransmission is performed through the transfer of neurotransmitters from one neuron to another through synapses.

The changes in strength or weakness of the synapses are known as synaptic plasticity. These changes can regulate the number of neurotransmitter receptors that bind neurotransmitters, and therefore, control the excitation of neurons.

Omega 3 fatty acids are involved in changing the strength or efficacy of synaptic plasticity and inducing the growth of new synaptic connections [4].

• Omega 3 Fatty Acids and Neuroinflammation

Neuroinflammation is an inflammation that happens within the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) following injury.

Omega 3 fatty acids have been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties through their involvement in the synthesis of pre-resolving mediators, such as resolvins, protectins, and maresins. These mediators are involved in the resolution of inflammation [5].

4- Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Neuropsychiatric Disorders

• Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Schizophrenia

A study found that the blood levels of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) are significantly lower in schizophrenia patients compared to healthy control individuals.

It also found that schizophrenia patients who consume more omega 3 fatty acids have an improvement in schizophrenia symptoms [6].

• Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Mood Disorders

Mood disorders have been associated with abnormalities in the composition and concentration of omega 3 fatty acids.

Patients with major depression have significantly lower omega 3 fatty acids in the blood cells and the severity of the depression correlated with the concentration of 3 fatty acids [7] [8].

5- Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)

Several studies have shown a correlation between Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and the decrease in the levels of omega 3 fatty acids in the hippocampus and cortex [9][10].

However, further clinical trials are required to confirm the beneficial role of omega 3 fatty acids for patients with Alzheimer’s disease.

6- Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Although the effect was modest, a study reported that supplementation with omega 3 fatty acids improved the symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) [11].

7- Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Acute Neuronal Injury

Excess or chronic neuroinflammation can cause damage and death of nerve cells. Through their neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties, Omega 3 fatty acids can prevent the induction of acute neuronal injury that is can be caused by neuroinflammation [12].

8- Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury can result in sensory and motor disabilities and post-traumatic inflammation that limit the regeneration of neuronal axons.

An experimental study showed a significant increase in locomotor performance and survival neurons following the administration of Omega 3 fatty acids [13].

Conclusion

Fish is rich in omega 3 fatty acids and specifically in docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). Omega 3 fatty acids have many roles in brain function, cognition, the generation of new neurons in the hippocampus and the cerebral cortex, and in neuroinflammation.

Omega 3 fatty acids also have neuroprotective properties that can help with the treatment of mental health disorders such as schizophrenia and major depression, Alzheimer’s disease, brain injury, ADHD, neuronal injury, and protection against neuroinflammation.

Therefore, to the question “Is It True That Fish Is Brain Food?”, the answer is an absolute, yes, and I will always have fish as part of my diet.

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• Omega-3
• B Vitamins
• Amino Acids
• Essential Minerals
• Vitamin D
• Plant-Based Antioxidants
• Probiotics and Prebiotics

1. Omega3

1.1. What Are Omega3 Fatty Acids Good For?

Omega-3 fatty acids are essential for the metabolism of lipid in our body and that can only be provided by the diet.

Omega-3 fatty acids are not a single entity, but they are divided into docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), linolenic acid (ALA), and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) [1].

• Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA)

Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) is the principal constituent of the plasma membrane of neurons found in the brain and cerebral cortex. It is also found in the retina and skin.

• Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA)

Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) is essential for the synthesis of the vasodilator, anticoagulant, and inflammatory hormone, Prostaglandin (PG).

Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) is also essential critical for the synthesis of the pro-coagulation and thrombosis factor, thromboxane, and the inflammation mediators, leukotrienes.

• Linolenic Acid (ALA)

Linolenic Acid (ALA) is involved in the regulation of blood lipids and endothelial (Vessels) function. It has also significant anti-inflammatory and anti-thrombotic effects.

1.2. Why Are Omega 3 fatty Acids Good for Mental Health?

Several studies reported that the reduction in intake of Omega 3 fatty Acids results in mood disorders [2].

Major depression and schizophrenia were also associated with reduced consumption of fish and omega 3 fatty acids [2].

The severity of depression was linked with the reduction of omega 3 fatty acids concentrations in the blood.

When comparing with healthy individuals, patients with schizophrenia had significantly lower levels of EPA and DHA.

1.3 Which Food Contains More Omega-3?

Foods that are rich in Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) and Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) include fatty fish such as salmon, tuna, herring, mackerel, sardine, and fish oils, while flaxseed, chia, walnuts, hemp, and vegetable oils are rich in Linolenic Acid (ALA).

2. B Vitamins

2.1. What Are B Vitamins Good For?

Through their co-enzymatic (help other enzymes) activities, B vitamins are essential players in the cell metabolism of sugars, amino acids, and lipids. They are also involved in the synthesis of neurotransmitters necessary for the nervous system functions.

2.2. Why Are B Vitamins Good for Mental Health?

Alterations in the activity of neurotransmitters have been associated with changes in mood, depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). B vitamins are essential for the synthesis of several neurotransmitters and in the conductance (transmission) of nerve impulses [3] [4].

• Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)

Through its activity as a coenzyme, vitamin B1 (Thiamine) is involved in the synthesis of the neurotransmitters, GABA, Acetylcholine, and glutamate.

• Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

Through its activity as a coenzyme, vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) is involved in the synthesis of neurotransmitters, dopamine, histamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, and GABA.

• Vitamin B9 (Folate, Folic Acid)

Folate has several roles in the nervous system:

– Increases the level of the neurotransmitter, serotonin, by reducing the breakdown of tryptophan which is an essential amino acid involved in the synthesis of serotonin.

–  Through its activity as a coenzyme, folate contributes to the synthesis of the monoamine neurotransmitters, serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine.

– Contributes to the synthesis of compounds necessary for the energy metabolism of the brain.

• Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)

Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) has also several roles in the nervous system:

– Through its activity as a coenzyme, vitamin B12 (cobalamin) contributes to the synthesis of the monoamine neurotransmitters, serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine.

– It is involved in the maintenance of myelin sheets that envelop neurons and which are involved in the transmission of nerve impulses.

– Helps the activity of folate.

2.3. Which Food Contains More B Vitamins?

• Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) is naturally present in food such as whole grains, legumes, and fish.

• Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) is mainly found in meat products such as Beef, pork, and fish.

• Vitamin B9 (Folate) is found in many types of food; however, due to its instability (e.g., high heat cooking), it is being added to several food sources as a fortifier to prevent a vitamin B9 deficiency.

• Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) is naturally present in foods such as meat, liver, milk, clams, fortified breakfast cereals, and eggs.

3- Amino Acids

3.1. What Are Amino Acids Good For?

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins that are essential for life. Proteins are a vital part of building cells, tissues, and organs. They are also critical for their functions as all physiological processes of the cells require proteins.

3.2. Why Are Amino Acids Good for Mental Health?

Amino acids play a critical role in the function of the nervous system and in mental health. The amino acid glutamate is a neurotransmitter, while other amino acids are necessary for the synthesis of several neurotransmitters.

• The neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine are made from the amino acid, Tyrosine, that is also made from phenylalanine.
• The neurotransmitter serotonin is made from tryptophan

3.3. Which Food Contains More Amino Acids?

Foods that are rich in amino acids include meats, eggs, and milk, and other dairy products.

4- Essential Minerals

4.1. What Are Essential Minerals Good For?

Essential minerals are essential for life through their role in the production of energy, bone formation, nucleic acid synthesis (DNA and RNA), hemoglobin synthesis, and metabolism of the cells.

4.2. Why Are Essential Minerals Good for Mental Health?

• Zinc

Zinc is involved in the regulation of gene expression and protein synthesis. As a cofactor for many enzymes, zinc is involved in several metabolic reactions.

 Zinc intake has been associated with a reduced incidence of depression [5]. Zinc deficiency is also involved in learning impairment and olfactory dysfunction [6].

• Iron

Iron is essential for the production of energy (ATP) in the brain. As a coenzyme, Iron is involved in the synthesis of the neurotransmitters, serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine [4].

• Magnesium

Magnesium is involved in several mental health disorders, including anxiety, depression, and migraine.

Magnesium has an essential role in neurotransmission and neuromuscular transduction through its protective function against excitotoxicity (excessive transmission by neurotransmitters) [7].

4.3. Which Food Contains More Essential Minerals?

• Foods that are rich in Zinc include oysters, beef, lobster, pork, cereals, crab, chicken, pumpkin seeds, baked beans, dairy products (milk, yogurt, cheese), cashews, chickpeas, and oatmeal.

• Foods that are rich in Iron include dark-green leafy vegetables, nuts and seeds, meat, fish, tofu, eggs, brown rice, and dried fruit.

• Foods that are rich in Magnesium include green leafy vegetables, such as spinach, nuts, seeds (chia and pumpkin seeds), legumes, and whole grains

5. Vitamin D

5.1. What Is Vitamin D Good For?

Vitamin D is involved in the intestinal absorption of magnesium, phosphate, and calcium necessary for calcium homeostasis and bone metabolism.

5.2. Why Is Vitamin D Good for Mental Health?

A study reported the involvement of vitamin D in schizophrenia associated with low levels of maternal vitamin D during pregnancy [8].

Another study reported an association between low levels of vitamin D and depression [9].

5.3. Which Food Contains More Vitamin D?

Vitamin D is naturally found in many foods such as beef liver, cod liver oil, eggs, salmon, tuna, mackerel, and sardines.

6. Plant-Based Antioxidants

6.1. What Are Plant-Based Antioxidants Good For?

Plant-Based Antioxidants prevent oxidative stress damage to cells that can lead to their death. They perform this action by neutralizing free radicals.

6.2. Why Are Plant-Based Antioxidants Good for Mental Health?

Unbalance in plant-based antioxidants such flavones, polyphenols, flavonoids, phytoestrogens, and catechins, has been shown to promote anxiety and depression.

Plant-based antioxidants prevent anxiety and depression through their role in reducing the inflammation of brain cells and restoring balance to neurotransmitters [10].

6.3. Which Food Contains More Plant-Based Antioxidants?

Foods that are rich in plant-based antioxidants include oilseeds, legumes, tree nuts, plants of the Lamiaceae family, tea and coffee, cereals, fruits, and berries.

7. Probiotics and Prebiotics

7.1. What Are Probiotics and Prebiotics Good For?

Probiotics are the gut’s most known “good bacteria” that are Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. These bacteria help other gut bacteria by providing them with nutrients that are commonly known as prebiotics [11].

The most common prebiotics are fructooligosaccharides, galactooligosaccharides, and trans-galactooligosaccharides, but other prebiotics plays important roles in health and aging such as insulin enriched-oligofructose, lactulose, and oligofructose.

7.2. Why Are Probiotics and Prebiotics Good for Mental Health?

The administration of prebiotics such as non-starch polysaccharides was shown to improve the performance of working and recognition memory and cognitive functions [16][17].

 Another prebiotic known as insulin enriched-oligofructose enhances mood and immediate memory [18].

Lactulose was also shown to improve cognitive function and health-related quality of life [19].

7.3. Which Food Contains More Probiotics and Prebiotics?

Probiotics are found in yogurt, lactobacillus milk, some cheeses such as Gouda, cheddar, cottage cheese, and mozzarella, pickles, sauerkraut, kefir, kimchi, tempeh, kombucha, and miso.

Prebiotics are found in carrots, quinoa, radishes, onions, chicory roots, konjac roots, oats, yams, garlic, barley, wheat bran, berries, apples, asparagus, bananas, leeks, chia seeds, flax seeds, cocoa, coconut, jicama root, and dandelion greens.

Conclusion

Although sometimes we are not aware of the importance of the food we consume, consuming the right nutrients such as omega 3 fatty acids, B vitamins, plant-based antioxidants, probiotics and prebiotics, essential minerals, vitamin D, and amino acids can make a big difference in preventing or reducing mental health issues.

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• Acetylcholine
• Dopamine
• Glutamate
• GABA
• Serotonin
• Norepinephrine
• Histamine

Neurotransmitters are produced by neurons and released in gaps that are found between neurons and between neurons and organs. These junctions are known as synapses.

When neurotransmitters are released in the synapses by a neuron, they go and bind to receptors on the receiving neuron or organ. It is like crossing from one side of a river to the other side.

This transition of neurotransmitters from one side to the other is known as neurotransmission.

As neurotransmitters are chemical messengers, they hold instructions such as excitatory (Doing) or inhibitory (Stop doing) information that is communicated and conveyed between neurons until they reach the target tissue or organ responsible for the execution of a specific action such as thinking, learning, emotions, memory, and movement.

I. What Is Acetylcholine?

Acetylcholine is an organic chemical involved in the transmission of instructions between neurons and muscles known as neuromotor or neuromuscular transmission, and between neurons that transmit information for brain organs and glands that are involved in attention, wakefulness, learning, memory (short-term memory), motivation, and mood and emotion [1].

1- What Is the Role of Acetylcholine in Disorders and diseases?

• Acetylcholine and Myasthenia Gravis

In Myasthenia Gravis, the body produces antibodies against acetylcholine receptors blocking the neuromuscular transmission resulting in muscles weakness and fatigue [2].

• Acetylcholine and Alzheimer’s Disease

As acetylcholine is essential for processing memory and learning, the loss of cholinergic neurons (neurons that uses acetylcholine for neurotransmission) contributes to the causes of Alzheimer’s Disease [3].

2- What Drugs Affect Acetylcholine?

There are drugs that promote the function of acetylcholine (agonists) such as nicotine, muscarine, and neostigmine, while others block its activity (antagonists) such as curare, atropine, scopolamine, and botulinum toxin.

In clinics, myorelaxants are used for the treatment of Myasthenia Gravis using inhibitors of cholinesterase, an enzyme that blocks the function of acetylcholine. For Alzheimer’s Disease, the cholinesterase inhibitor, rivastigmine, is used.

II. What Is Dopamine?

Dopamine is an organic chemical involved in the transmission of instructions between neurons to control movement and reward-motivated behavior, such as pleasure, craving, decision making based on rewards, associative learning (learning new things), and short-term memory [4].

1- What Is the Role of Dopamine in Diseases and disorders?

• Dopamine and Parkinson’s disease

Parkinson’s disease is due to the loss of neurons that secrete dopamine (substantia Negra region in the brain) and that control movement. As a result, symptoms such as trembling, stiffness, and slower movement are associated with this disease [5].

• Dopamine and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

This disorder is associated with defects in dopamine neurotransmission resulting in reduced attention, short-term memory, and impulse control [6].

• Dopamine and Schizophrenia

Although the mechanism is not well known, the excessive use of dopamine stimulants, such as amphetamine, has been shown to induce schizophrenia [7].

2- What Drugs Affect Dopamine?

There are drugs that directly promote the function of dopamine (agonists) such as Deprenyl, while others directly block its activity (antagonists) such as chlorpromazine.

III. What is Glutamate?

Glutamate is the most abundant chemical messenger that is involved in excitatory neurotransmission which increases nerves impulses (action potential). It is implicated in cognitive activity, including memory and learning, the growth of neurons, and the formation of synapses [8].

1- What Is the Role of Glutamate in Diseases and disorders?

• Glutamate and Epileptic Seizures

Due to the high excitatory activity of glutamate (excitotoxicity), neurons are excessively stimulated resulting in uncontrolled shaking and loss of consciousness. If lasting for longer periods these epileptic seizures can lead to brain damage [9].

• Glutamate and Autism (Autism Syndrome Disorder)

This has been associated with alterations in glutamate function during the neurodevelopment of the embryo [10]. The born child has social and communication difficulties as well as limited and repetitive behavior.

• Glutamate and Stroke

Too much glutamate known as excitotoxicity can lead to the destruction of neurons resulting in stroke and death [11].

• Glutamate and Intellectual Disability

This has also been associated with alterations in glutamate function during the neurodevelopment of the embryo [12].

• Glutamate and Amyotrophic Lateral Disability (ALS)

ALS is a progressive degenerative disorder characterized by the loss of motor neurons (movement control) due to glutamate excitotoxicity [8].

• Glutamate and Alzheimer’s Disease

Glutamate excitotoxicity has been associated with the death of neurons, involved in learning and memory, and that is found in the cortex and hippocampus [13].

2- What Drugs Affect Glutamate?

There are drugs that promote the function of glutamate (agonists) such as NMDA (N-methyl-d-aspartate and AMPA (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid), while others block its activity (antagonists) such as ketamine and AP5 ((2R)-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid).

IV. What is GABA?

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric acid) is a chemical messenger and the major inhibitor of neurotransmission by reducing nerves’ impulses (action potential). Therefore, it has an opposite action to that of glutamate, and therefore, ensures balanced neurotransmission. GABA is involved in self-control, emotions, and attention [14].

1- What Is the Role of GABA in disorders?

• GABA and Epileptic seizures

As GABA is an inhibitor of neurotransmission, the reduction in its level in neurons results in excitotoxicity as neurons are excessively stimulated resulting in uncontrolled shaking and loss of consciousness [15].  

• GABA and Sleep Disorder

GABA is known to favor sleep and alterations in its level in neurons will keep them stimulated which affects sleep [16].

• GABA and Anxiety Disorders

GABA has been shown to prevent the activation of the hypothalamus-pituitary gland-adrenal glands axis (HPA axis) that is involved in fear and anxiety. Reduction in the level of GABA promotes anxiety [17].

• GABA and Schizophrenia

Although the mechanism by which GABA is involved in schizophrenia is not well known, it is suggested that the reduction in GABA affects the function of the prefrontal cortex responsible for cognitive control (information processing and behavior) [18].

• GABA and Major Depression

The mechanism linking GABA and major depression is suggested to be like the one involved in anxiety disorders where a deficit in GABA increases the activation of the HPA axis [19].

• GABA and Autism (Autism Syndrome Disorder)

The link between GABA and autism may be due to defect in GABA function during the neurodevelopment of the embryo [20].

2- What Drugs Affect GABA?

There are drugs that promote the function of GABA (agonists) such as muscimol, while others block its activity (antagonists) such as bicuculine and tiagabine.

V. What is Serotonin?

Serotonin is a chemical messenger involved in the neurotransmission of information related to mood, reward, learning, memory, and cognition.

1- What Is the Role of Serotonin in disorders?

• Serotonin and Major depression

Although significant abnormalities in the function of serotonin were seen in depressed patients, the mechanism by which serotonin is involved in depression is not well known [21].

• Serotonin and Autism (Autism Syndrome Disorder)

The link between serotonin and autism may be due to alterations in serotonin function during the neurodevelopment of the embryo [22].

2- What Drugs Affect Serotonin?

There are drugs that directly promote the function of serotonin (agonists) such as lysergic acid diethylamide, fenfluramine, and MDMA (methylenedioxymethamphetamine), while others directly block its activity (antagonists) such as SSRI, ondansetron, and PCPA.

VI.  What is Norepinephrine?

Norepinephrine is a hormone and chemical messenger associated with the “fight-or-flight” response mediated by the HPA axis.

In temporary stressful situations, the hypothalamus secretes CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone) to stimulate the secretion of ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone) by the pituitary gland leading to the secretion of the hormone noradrenaline (norepinephrine) which instructs the brain and body for action [23].  

1- What Is the Role of Norepinephrine in disorders?

• Norepinephrine and Pheochromocytoma

Pheochromocytoma is a tumor found in the adrenal medulla where norepinephrine is produced. Because tumor cells produce large quantities of norepinephrine, symptoms such as hypertension as observed [24].

• Norepinephrine and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Although the mechanism between norepinephrine and ADHD is not well known, alterations in the processing of norepinephrine appear to be involved in impulsiveness and hyperactivity seen in ADHD [25].

2- What Drugs Affect Norepinephrine?

There are drugs that directly promote the function of epinephrine (agonists) such as moclobemide, idazoxan while others directly block its activity (antagonists) such as fusaric acid.

VII. What is Histamine?

Histamine is a well know actor in local immune responses, and is produced by mast cells and basophils; however, it is also an important neurotransmitter involved in itching following inflammation, and in the regulation of sleep-wakefulness cycle [26].

1- What Is the Role of Histamine in disorders?

• Histamine and Chronic Inflammation Diseases

Histamine is involved in the regulation of the function of immune cells which secrete cytokines that are involved in inflammation. Therefore, alteration of histamine levels is seen in several diseases, including atopic dermatitis, allergic asthma, and allergic rhinitis.

• Histamine and Allergies

Histamine is actively secreted by mast cells and basophils following their activation by allergens (substances causing allergies) which results in swelling, smooth muscle contraction, itching, and tachycardia.

• Mastocytosis

An excess of histamine is produced during mastocytosis which is characterized by increased proliferation of mast cells

2- What Drugs Affect Histamine?

There are drugs that directly block the function of histamine (agonists) such as diphenhydramine (Benadryl).

Conclusion

Neurotransmitters are essential for the function of the nervous system as they transmit information from the brain to other parts of the body and the other way around. Therefore, any alterations in their function have significant impacts on mental health and diseases.

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1. Physiological Mechanisms of Headaches and Migraines

Migraine can be due to a genetic complex familial disorder that is most likely governed by several genes, however, both headache and migraine are caused by trigeminal nerve activation and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) release from the trigeminovascular system.

The trigeminal nerve transmits sensations of touch and pain in the face and motor functions. These sensations are transmitted through the nerve’s three major branches: the ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular nerves [1].

Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) is a neuropeptide produced and secreted by the thyroid C cells and stored in the trigeminovascular system, which consists of a complex of sensory neurons that innervate cerebral blood vessels, pial vessels, dura mater, and large venous sinuses.

Once released from these neurons, CGRP has been associated with nociceptive transmission (perception or sensation of pain), and release from perivascular nerve endings causing neurogenic vasodilatation [2]. 

2. Causes of Headaches and Migraines

Several causes trigger a headache and migraine, and among these, stress, environment, diet, hormones, lack of sleep, and gallbladder disorders, are the main ones.

A. Stress and Migraines

Migraines and headaches are often caused by stress. When a person is stressed, the body releases certain hormones which can trigger migraines and headaches. These hormones can cause the blood vessels in the head to dilate, leading to pain [3].

Additionally, stress can lead to tension headaches, which are caused by muscle contractions in the neck and head. Tension headaches are the most common type of headache, and they can be triggered by stress, fatigue, poor posture, and eyestrain.

B. Diet and Migraines

Many experts believe that diet may play a role. Some foods are known to trigger migraines and headaches, including aged cheeses, processed meats, nuts, and chocolate. Drinking too much alcohol or caffeine can also bring on these unpleasant symptoms [4].

If you suffer from migraines or headaches, it’s important to keep track of what foods seem to aggravate them. Try eliminating suspected triggers from your diet for a few weeks and see if your symptoms improve. You may also want to try eating smaller meals more often throughout the day instead of three large meals. Getting enough sleep and regular exercise can also help reduce the likelihood of migraines and headaches.

C. Gall Bladder and Migraines

The association between the gall bladder and migraines has been shown by a study of 20,427 patients who were diagnosed with gallbladder stone disease (GSD) between 2000 and 2011 from Taiwan’s National Health Insurance Research Database (NHIRD). The study reported a greater cumulative incidence of migraines in patients with GSD compared with those without GSD [5].  

D. Environmental Factors and Migraines

Environmental factors that cause headaches and migraines are associated with seasonal allergies and weather changes that can affect the sinuses.

E. Hormones and Migraines

A link between hormones such as estrogens and migraines has also been reported. This is reflected by the increased frequency of migraines during menstruation [6].

F. Sleep and Migraines

Finally, a lack of sleep is another cause of headaches and migraines. This interaction was shown by a study of 50 migraineurs which confirmed previous observations that sleep is a common way of ending the headache phase [7].

3. Headaches and Migraines treatment

Migraines can be debilitating and frustrating. Many people do not know how to treat them. There are many treatments for migraines, but what works for one person may not work for another. Some people find that over-the-counter medications work well (e.g., Ibuprofen or Aspirin), while others need prescription medication.

Some people find that they need to see a neurologist to get help with their migraines. Several alternative treatments can help, including acupuncture and chiropractic care.

4. Frequently Asked Questions About What Causes Headaches and Migraines

What causes headaches and migraines?

Headaches and migraines can be caused by various factors, including stress, tension, dehydration, lack of sleep, hormonal changes, certain foods, environmental factors, and underlying health conditions.

Can weather changes cause headaches and migraines?

Yes, some people are sensitive to changes in weather patterns, such as barometric pressure changes, which can trigger headaches and migraines.

Are headaches and migraines hereditary?

There is evidence to suggest that genetics play a role in predisposing individuals to migraines. If one or both parents have a history of migraines, there’s an increased likelihood of experiencing them.

Can food and drinks trigger headaches and migraines?

Yes, certain foods and drinks, such as aged cheeses, processed meats, caffeine, alcohol, and artificial sweeteners, can trigger headaches and migraines in susceptible individuals.

Can stress cause headaches and migraines?

Yes, stress is a common trigger for both tension headaches and migraines. Managing stress through relaxation techniques, exercise, and mindfulness can help reduce the frequency and severity of headaches.

Are there any specific environmental factors that can trigger headaches and migraines?

Yes, environmental factors such as bright lights, loud noises, strong odors, and changes in altitude or air pressure can trigger headaches and migraines in some people.

Can hormonal changes trigger headaches and migraines?

Yes, hormonal fluctuations, such as those occurring during menstruation, pregnancy, or menopause, can trigger migraines in some individuals.

Are there certain medical conditions that can cause headaches and migraines?

Yes, underlying medical conditions such as high blood pressure, sinus infections, temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disorder, and intracranial abnormalities can cause headaches and migraines.

How can I determine what triggers my headaches and migraines?

Keeping a headache diary can help identify triggers by tracking factors such as food and drink intake, sleep patterns, stress levels, weather changes, and menstrual cycles, along with headache occurrence.

When should I see a doctor about my headaches and migraines?

You should see a doctor if you experience severe or frequent headaches, headaches that worsen over time, headaches accompanied by other symptoms such as vision changes, numbness, weakness, or difficulty speaking, or if your headaches interfere with daily activities despite over-the-counter treatments.

Conclusion

Although some headaches and migraines appear to be due to a hereditary genetic complex familial disorder, most are due to stress and diet that can be individually controllable through a healthy lifestyle.

Other types of headaches and migraines are periodic due to menstruation in women and environmental changes. However, treatment for gallbladder stone disease is required for related headaches and migraines.

References

[1] https://teachmeanatomy.info/head/cranial-nerves/trigeminal-nerve/

[2] Benemei, S., Nicoletti, P., Capone, J.G. and Geppetti, P., 2009. CGRP receptors in the control of pain and inflammation. Current opinion in pharmacology, 9(1), pp.9-14.

[3] Sauro, K.M. and Becker, W.J., 2009. The stress and migraine interaction. Headache: The journal of head and face pain, 49(9), pp.1378-1386.

[4] Finocchi, C. and Sivori, G., 2012. Food as trigger and aggravating factor of migraine. Neurological Sciences, 33(1), pp.77-80.

[5] Chen, C.H., Lin, C.L. and Kao, C.H., 2018. Gallbladder stone disease is associated with an increased risk of migraines. Journal of clinical medicine, 7(11), p.455.

[6] MacGregor, A., 2000. Migraine associated with menstruation. Functional neurology, 15, pp.143-153.

[7] Blau, J.N., 1982. Resolution of migraine attacks: sleep and the recovery phase. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 45(3), pp.223-226.

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Understanding whether the brain can generate new cells, particularly neurons, has profound implications for our understanding of brain function, development, and potential avenues for treating neurological disorders.

In this article, we delve into the latest research and evidence surrounding neurogenesis, the process by which new neurons are produced in the adult brain, shedding light on this intriguing phenomenon and its implications for human health and cognition.

I. Neurogenesis: Debunking the Myth

A. Definition of Neurogenesis and Its Significance in Brain Function

Neurogenesis, the process by which new neurons are generated in the brain, has garnered significant interest for its potential implications for brain function and health.

Previously believed to occur exclusively during embryonic development, neurogenesis in adult brains challenges traditional views of brain plasticity and regeneration.

This process holds immense significance as it suggests that the adult brain may possess the ability to adapt, repair, and even rejuvenate itself throughout life.

Understanding neurogenesis is crucial for unraveling the mysteries of brain function, learning, memory, and the potential treatment of neurological disorders.

B. Historical Perspective: Early Beliefs and Misconceptions About Neurogenesis

The concept of neurogenesis has a rich historical background marked by early beliefs and misconceptions.

For centuries, it was widely accepted that the adult brain was a static organ, incapable of producing new neurons. This notion persisted until the latter half of the 20th century when advancements in neuroscience challenged this dogma.

Before these discoveries, the prevailing belief was that brain cells, once lost, could not be replenished, leading to skepticism regarding the possibility of adult neurogenesis.

However, emerging evidence and landmark studies began to reshape our understanding of brain plasticity and the potential for new neuron formation in the adult brain.

C. Landmark Discoveries Challenging Traditional Views on Brain Cell Regeneration

Landmark discoveries in the field of neuroscience have challenged traditional views on brain cell regeneration and reshaped our understanding of neurogenesis.

One such breakthrough occurred in the 1960s when researchers identified neurogenesis in the hippocampus, a region of the brain crucial for learning and memory. This finding sparked a paradigm shift, leading to increased exploration of neurogenesis in adult brains.

Subsequent studies utilizing modern techniques such as neuroimaging and genetic tracing have provided further evidence of ongoing neurogenesis throughout life.

These discoveries have revolutionized our understanding of brain plasticity and opened new avenues for investigating the role of neurogenesis in brain health and disease.

II. The Science Behind Neurogenesis

A. Regions Of the Brain Where Neurogenesis Occurs

Neurogenesis, the process of generating new neurons, predominantly occurs in specific regions of the adult brain.

One of the most well-studied regions is the hippocampus, a structure vital for learning, memory, and emotional regulation. Within the hippocampus, neurogenesis primarily takes place in the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus, where neural stem cells give rise to new neurons.

Additionally, emerging evidence suggests that neurogenesis may also occur in other regions of the brain, including the subventricular zone lining the lateral ventricles.

Understanding the specific brain regions where neurogenesis occurs is crucial for unraveling its functional significance and potential therapeutic implications.

B. Mechanisms and Factors Regulating Neurogenesis in Adult Brains

The process of neurogenesis in adult brains is tightly regulated by a complex interplay of molecular, cellular, and environmental factors.

Key players include neural stem cells, progenitor cells, and various growth factors and signaling molecules.

Neural stem cells undergo proliferation, differentiation, and maturation into functional neurons under the influence of intrinsic and extrinsic cues. Factors such as exercise, environmental enrichment, stress, and neurotrophic factors like brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) modulate neurogenesis.

Additionally, neurotransmitters, hormones, and inflammatory mediators also play roles in regulating neurogenesis.

Understanding the mechanisms and factors that govern neurogenesis is essential for developing strategies to modulate this process for therapeutic purposes.

C. Role of Neurogenesis in Learning, Memory, and Cognitive Function

Neurogenesis plays a critical role in learning, memory, and cognitive function, particularly within the hippocampus.

Newly generated neurons integrate into existing neural circuits and contribute to synaptic plasticity, facilitating the encoding and retrieval of memories.

Studies have shown that disruptions in neurogenesis impair learning and memory tasks while enhancing neurogenesis through environmental enrichment or exercise enhances cognitive performance.

Furthermore, neurogenesis may play a role in mood regulation and emotional processing, with implications for mental health disorders such as depression and anxiety.

Understanding the role of neurogenesis in learning, memory, and cognitive function provides valuable insights into brain plasticity and the potential for harnessing this process for cognitive enhancement and neuroregeneration.

III. Evidence Supporting Adult Neurogenesis

A. Studies Utilizing Modern Techniques to Trace and Quantify New Neurons

Advancements in neuroscience have enabled researchers to utilize modern techniques to trace and quantify new neurons, providing compelling evidence for adult neurogenesis.

Techniques such as immunohistochemistry, genetic labeling, and live imaging allow scientists to visualize and track the birth, migration, and integration of new neurons in the adult brain with unprecedented precision.

These studies have revealed the dynamic nature of neurogenesis and provided insights into the factors that regulate this process.

By employing state-of-the-art methodologies, researchers continue to unravel the mysteries of adult neurogenesis and its implications for brain health and function.

B. Animal Models and Human Studies Providing Direct Evidence of Neurogenesis

Animal models and human studies have provided direct evidence of neurogenesis in the adult brain, further solidifying our understanding of this phenomenon.

Studies utilizing rodent models, such as mice and rats, have demonstrated the presence of neurogenesis in regions like the hippocampus and subventricular zone.

Additionally, advancements in neuroimaging techniques have allowed researchers to visualize neurogenesis in living human brains.

Postmortem analyses and neuroimaging studies have provided valuable insights into the extent and significance of neurogenesis in human brain health and disease.

These findings underscore the conserved nature of neurogenesis across species and its potential relevance to human cognition and behavior.

C. Impact of Environmental Enrichment, Exercise, and Other Factors on Promoting Neurogenesis

Environmental enrichment, exercise, and various lifestyle factors have been shown to promote neurogenesis in the adult brain.

Studies have consistently demonstrated that exposure to enriched environments, characterized by increased social interaction, physical activity, and cognitive stimulation, enhances neurogenesis.

Similarly, regular exercise has been linked to increased neuronal proliferation and survival, particularly in the hippocampus.

Other factors, such as diet, sleep, and stress levels, also influence neurogenesis, highlighting the multifaceted nature of this process.

By incorporating lifestyle interventions that support neurogenesis, individuals can potentially enhance brain health, cognitive function, and overall well-being.

IV. Controversies and Challenges

A. Criticisms and Limitations of Neurogenesis Research

Despite the significant advancements in our understanding of neurogenesis, the field is not without its criticisms and limitations. One common criticism is the reliance on animal models, particularly rodents, which may not fully recapitulate the complexities of human neurogenesis.

Additionally, there are challenges associated with accurately quantifying and tracking new neurons in the adult brain, leading to variability and potential inaccuracies in research findings.

Furthermore, the extent to which neurogenesis occurs and its functional significance in human brains remain subjects of debate and scrutiny.

Addressing these limitations is crucial for advancing our understanding of neurogenesis and its implications for human health and disease.

B. Conflicting Findings and Interpretations in The Field

Conflicting findings and interpretations in the field of neurogenesis contribute to ongoing debates and controversies surrounding this phenomenon.

While some studies have provided robust evidence for adult neurogenesis in specific brain regions, others have failed to replicate these findings or have reported contradictory results.

Factors such as methodological differences, variability in experimental conditions, and the complexity of neurogenic niches contribute to inconsistencies in research outcomes.

Additionally, conflicting interpretations of data and alternative hypotheses further complicate our understanding of neurogenesis.

Resolving these discrepancies and reconciling conflicting findings is essential for establishing a consensus and advancing the field of neurogenesis.

C. Remaining Questions and Areas for Future Investigation

Despite decades of research, numerous questions and areas for future investigation remain in the field of neurogenesis.

Key questions include elucidating the functional significance of adult neurogenesis in human brains, understanding the mechanisms underlying neuronal integration and survival, and exploring the potential therapeutic applications of modulating neurogenesis.

Additionally, there is a need to investigate the interplay between neurogenesis and other processes such as synaptic plasticity, inflammation, and neurodegeneration.

Advancements in imaging techniques, genetic manipulation, and computational modeling hold promise for addressing these questions and uncovering new insights into the complexities of neurogenesis.

By addressing these remaining questions, researchers can further our understanding of brain plasticity and pave the way for novel therapeutic strategies targeting neurogenesis-related pathways.

V. Practical Implications and Applications

A. Potential Implications for Treating Neurodegenerative Diseases and Brain Injuries

The discovery of adult neurogenesis holds significant promise for the development of novel therapies for neurodegenerative diseases and brain injuries.

Understanding the mechanisms that govern neurogenesis may provide insights into how to stimulate the production of new neurons in regions affected by conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and stroke.

By promoting neurogenesis, it may be possible to replace lost neurons, repair damaged circuits, and mitigate the progression of neurodegeneration.

Additionally, strategies aimed at enhancing neurogenesis could offer new avenues for regenerative medicine approaches to treat traumatic brain injuries and other forms of brain damage.

While challenges remain in translating basic research findings into effective clinical therapies, the potential implications for treating neurodegenerative diseases and brain injuries are vast.

B. Strategies for Enhancing Neurogenesis Through Lifestyle Interventions

Lifestyle interventions offer promising strategies for enhancing neurogenesis and promoting brain health.

Regular physical exercise has been shown to stimulate neurogenesis, with aerobic exercise having a profound impact on neuronal proliferation and survival.

Additionally, environmental enrichment, cognitive stimulation, and social interaction have been linked to increased neurogenesis and improved cognitive function.

Other factors such as diet, sleep, and stress management also influence neurogenesis and may be modifiable through lifestyle interventions.

By adopting a holistic approach that incorporates regular exercise, mental stimulation, and healthy lifestyle choices, individuals can potentially enhance neurogenesis and support overall brain health.

C. Ethical Considerations and Implications for Neuroscience Research and Therapy Development

As research into neurogenesis advances, ethical considerations regarding its implications for neuroscience research and therapy development come to the forefront.

Ethical considerations may include questions surrounding the use of animal models in neurogenesis research, the potential for exploitation of research findings for commercial gain, and the ethical implications of manipulating brain function through neurogenesis-modulating interventions.

Additionally, there are ethical considerations related to the equitable distribution of emerging therapies targeting neurogenesis, ensuring access for all individuals regardless of socioeconomic status or geographic location.

Addressing these ethical considerations requires careful consideration of the potential risks and benefits of neurogenesis research and therapy development, as well as ongoing dialogue among researchers, policymakers, and stakeholders in the neuroscience community.

VI. Frequently Asked Questions about Does the Brain Produce New Cells?

Does the brain produce new cells?

Yes, research has shown that the adult brain can produce new cells, including neurons, through a process called neurogenesis.

Is neurogenesis limited to certain regions of the brain?

Neurogenesis primarily occurs in specific regions of the brain, such as the hippocampus, a region crucial for learning and memory. However, emerging evidence suggests that neurogenesis may also occur in other brain regions.

What factors influence neurogenesis?

Various factors can influence neurogenesis, including environmental enrichment, exercise, diet, sleep, stress levels, and genetic factors. Lifestyle interventions such as regular physical activity and mental stimulation have been shown to promote neurogenesis.

Why is neurogenesis important?

Neurogenesis plays a crucial role in brain plasticity, learning, memory, and cognitive function. It may also have implications for treating neurodegenerative diseases, brain injuries, and mental health disorders.

Can neurogenesis be enhanced?

Yes, certain lifestyle interventions, such as regular exercise, cognitive stimulation, and environmental enrichment, have been shown to enhance neurogenesis. Additionally, certain pharmacological and dietary interventions may also promote neurogenesis.

Does neurogenesis occur throughout life?

While neurogenesis is most prominent during early development, research has shown that it continues to occur throughout life, albeit at a reduced rate in adulthood. The extent and significance of neurogenesis in adult brains are areas of ongoing research.

Conclusion

The question “Does the brain produce new cells?” has been answered with a resounding “yes” by scientific research.

The discovery of adult neurogenesis has revolutionized our understanding of brain plasticity and regeneration, offering new insights into brain health, cognition, and potential therapeutic avenues for neurological disorders.

As research in this field continues to evolve, exploring the mechanisms and implications of neurogenesis, it opens doors to exciting possibilities for optimizing brain function and enhancing overall well-being.

Embracing the potential of neurogenesis holds promise for unlocking the mysteries of the brain and improving lives around the world.

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