RLS is a common disease that affects about 10% of the general population [1].

1. What Is the Main Cause of Restless Leg Syndrome?

Although the cause is unknown, it is thought that the main cause of restless leg syndrome (RLS) is associated with an imbalance in the function of the neurotransmitter dopamine due to low levels of iron in the brain and body [1].

Dopamine is an organic chemical involved in the transmission of instructions between neurons to control muscle movements and reward-motivated behavior [2].

Other potential causes involve heredity, pregnancy, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and medications.

1.1. What Is the Relation Between Restless Leg Syndrome and Heredity?

A role of heredity in RLS is associated with the high frequency of family history of RLS in patients diagnosed with this disease [3].

Monozygotic and dizygotic twin studies confirmed heredity involvement in RLS by showing the existence of a high concordance of RLS in monozygotic twins compared with that in dizygotic twins.

1.2. What Is the Relation Between Restless Leg Syndrome and Pregnancy?

Due to hormonal changes during the third semester of pregnancy, some women may experience RLS which disappears after delivery [4].

These changes involve an increase in the production of hormones, including estrogens, prolactin, progesterone, and thyroid hormone.

A reduction of iron and folate levels during pregnancy also appears to contribute to RLS due to their involvement in the synthesis of dopamine which further highlights the role of dopamine as the main cause of restless leg syndrome.

The prevalence of RLS during pregnancy was estimated to be in the range of 2.9-32% which is about 2-3 times higher than that in non-pregnant women.

1.3. What Is the Relation Between Restless Leg Syndrome and ADHD?

A relation Between Restless Leg Syndrome and ADHD was proposed by a study that showed that 44% of individuals with ADHD also had RLS.

Another important piece of information to add is that both ADHD and RLS have alterations related to dopamine levels in the brain [5].

1.4. What Is the Relation Between Restless Leg Syndrome and Medications?

Certain medications have been associated with restless leg syndrome, such as antidepressants (e.g., SSRIs, Tricyclics), withdrawal from sedative-hypnotic drugs (e.g., benzodiazepines), antiemetics (e.g., anticholinergics), antipsychotics, anticonvulsants, and antihistamines (e.g., diphenhydramine) [6].

Furthermore, alcohol and opioid withdrawal have also been associated with RLS.

2. Who Is Prone to Restless Leg Syndrome?

Restless leg syndrome (RLS) can develop at any age but is more common in women than men. There are also some factors that can increase the risk of RLS:

• Low Iron Levels
• Kidney Failure
• Neuropathy
• Rheumatoid Arthritis
• Diabetes Mellitus
• Celiac Disease
• Alcohol
• Iron Deficiency Anemia
• Parkinson’s Disease

2.1. Low Iron Levels

Iron is an essential cofactor in the production of dopamine and its deficiency can trigger RLS. Low iron levels can be due to blood loss through internal hemorrhage (e.g., gastrointestinal bleeding), excessive menstrual bleeding, frequent blood donations, or malabsorption.

2.2. Kidney Failure

Patients with chronic kidney disease on dialysis have decreased levels of iron due to the depletion of its storage in the blood.

2.3. Neuropathy

Increased levels of glucose in the blood such as during diabetes can lead to damage of nerves resulting in RLS.

2.4. Rheumatoid Arthritis

There is an elevated prevalence of RLS in patients with rheumatoid arthritis reaching between 27.7-31% [7].

2.5. Alcohol

Excessive consumption of alcohol (alcoholism) can lead to damage of nerves leading to RLS.

2.6. Celiac Disease

Celiac disease is an intestinal chronic disease characterized by a loss of appetite, malabsorption, and diarrhea due to gluten intolerance.

Celiac disease can also lead to iron deficiency which may lead to RLS. In fact, a study showed that 40% of studied patients with celiac disease had an iron deficiency [8].

2.7. Parkinson’s Disease

The characteristic dysfunction of dopamine in Parkinson’s Disease may explain why RLS is observed in some PD patients [9].

2.8. Iron Deficiency Anemia

Iron deficiency anemia is caused by a lack of iron in the body resulting in a reduction of the number of red blood cells leading to anemia. This lack of iron can also affect dopamine production.

3. What Symptoms Come with Restless Leg Syndrome?

Restless leg syndrome manifests with the following symptoms:

• An urge to move the legs due unpleasant sensations in the legs.
• An urge to move the legs during periods of rest or inactivity.
• The urge to move the legs may partially or totally be relieved by movement, such as walking or stretching.
• The urge to move the legs is increased in the evening or night than during the day.

4. Is Restless Leg Syndrome Psychological?

Although restless leg syndrome (RLS) is considered a neurological disease, a study that included 38 patients with RLS and 42 non-RLS controls, showed that patients with RLS have a lower internal locus of control (ability to impact its own health) and negative sleep-related personality traits compared to the non-RLS controls [10].

A negative sleep-related personality trait is associated with lower self-confidence, depression, higher mental arousal, and poorer quality of life.

5. How do you get rid of restless legs syndrome?

The treatment of RLS is aimed at relieving the associated symptoms that are caused by underlying physical conditions such as diabetes, celiac disease, or iron deficiency.

Medications to relieve the symptoms of RLS involve the use of dopaminergic drugs to improve dopamine effects, opioids to relieve the symptoms of severe RLS, and benzodiazepines for restful sleep.

Changes in lifestyle such as stopping alcohol, exercising (e.g., aerobics, stretching), taking iron supplements, respecting a regular sleep pattern, can help relieve some of the moderate symptoms.

Conclusion

Restless leg syndrome (RLS) can cause uncomfortable sensations that can affect sleep and the quality of life of the affected individual. The cause is unknown, but many studies highlighted the potential involvement of dopamine as the main cause.

RLS is also associated with several diseases which share with RLS the deficiency in iron which is an essential cofactor in the production of dopamine. However, other diseases and conditions such as diabetes or alcoholism can lead to nerve damage due to high blood levels of glucose or alcohol, respectively.

Although there is no specific treatment for RLS, dealing with this disease involves symptomatic treatments that aim at alleviating or reducing the undesirable and overwhelming manifestations of RLS.

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• Omega-3
• B Vitamins
• Amino Acids
• Essential Minerals
• Vitamin D
• Plant-Based Antioxidants
• Probiotics and Prebiotics

1. Omega3

1.1. What Are Omega3 Fatty Acids Good For?

Omega-3 fatty acids are essential for the metabolism of lipid in our body and that can only be provided by the diet.

Omega-3 fatty acids are not a single entity, but they are divided into docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), linolenic acid (ALA), and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) [1].

• Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA)

Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) is the principal constituent of the plasma membrane of neurons found in the brain and cerebral cortex. It is also found in the retina and skin.

• Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA)

Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) is essential for the synthesis of the vasodilator, anticoagulant, and inflammatory hormone, Prostaglandin (PG).

Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) is also essential critical for the synthesis of the pro-coagulation and thrombosis factor, thromboxane, and the inflammation mediators, leukotrienes.

• Linolenic Acid (ALA)

Linolenic Acid (ALA) is involved in the regulation of blood lipids and endothelial (Vessels) function. It has also significant anti-inflammatory and anti-thrombotic effects.

1.2. Why Are Omega 3 fatty Acids Good for Mental Health?

Several studies reported that the reduction in intake of Omega 3 fatty Acids results in mood disorders [2].

Major depression and schizophrenia were also associated with reduced consumption of fish and omega 3 fatty acids [2].

The severity of depression was linked with the reduction of omega 3 fatty acids concentrations in the blood.

When comparing with healthy individuals, patients with schizophrenia had significantly lower levels of EPA and DHA.

1.3 Which Food Contains More Omega-3?

Foods that are rich in Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) and Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) include fatty fish such as salmon, tuna, herring, mackerel, sardine, and fish oils, while flaxseed, chia, walnuts, hemp, and vegetable oils are rich in Linolenic Acid (ALA).

2. B Vitamins

2.1. What Are B Vitamins Good For?

Through their co-enzymatic (help other enzymes) activities, B vitamins are essential players in the cell metabolism of sugars, amino acids, and lipids. They are also involved in the synthesis of neurotransmitters necessary for the nervous system functions.

2.2. Why Are B Vitamins Good for Mental Health?

Alterations in the activity of neurotransmitters have been associated with changes in mood, depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). B vitamins are essential for the synthesis of several neurotransmitters and in the conductance (transmission) of nerve impulses [3] [4].

• Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)

Through its activity as a coenzyme, vitamin B1 (Thiamine) is involved in the synthesis of the neurotransmitters, GABA, Acetylcholine, and glutamate.

• Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

Through its activity as a coenzyme, vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) is involved in the synthesis of neurotransmitters, dopamine, histamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, and GABA.

• Vitamin B9 (Folate, Folic Acid)

Folate has several roles in the nervous system:

– Increases the level of the neurotransmitter, serotonin, by reducing the breakdown of tryptophan which is an essential amino acid involved in the synthesis of serotonin.

–  Through its activity as a coenzyme, folate contributes to the synthesis of the monoamine neurotransmitters, serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine.

– Contributes to the synthesis of compounds necessary for the energy metabolism of the brain.

• Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)

Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) has also several roles in the nervous system:

– Through its activity as a coenzyme, vitamin B12 (cobalamin) contributes to the synthesis of the monoamine neurotransmitters, serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine.

– It is involved in the maintenance of myelin sheets that envelop neurons and which are involved in the transmission of nerve impulses.

– Helps the activity of folate.

2.3. Which Food Contains More B Vitamins?

• Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) is naturally present in food such as whole grains, legumes, and fish.

• Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) is mainly found in meat products such as Beef, pork, and fish.

• Vitamin B9 (Folate) is found in many types of food; however, due to its instability (e.g., high heat cooking), it is being added to several food sources as a fortifier to prevent a vitamin B9 deficiency.

• Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) is naturally present in foods such as meat, liver, milk, clams, fortified breakfast cereals, and eggs.

3- Amino Acids

3.1. What Are Amino Acids Good For?

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins that are essential for life. Proteins are a vital part of building cells, tissues, and organs. They are also critical for their functions as all physiological processes of the cells require proteins.

3.2. Why Are Amino Acids Good for Mental Health?

Amino acids play a critical role in the function of the nervous system and in mental health. The amino acid glutamate is a neurotransmitter, while other amino acids are necessary for the synthesis of several neurotransmitters.

• The neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine are made from the amino acid, Tyrosine, that is also made from phenylalanine.
• The neurotransmitter serotonin is made from tryptophan

3.3. Which Food Contains More Amino Acids?

Foods that are rich in amino acids include meats, eggs, and milk, and other dairy products.

4- Essential Minerals

4.1. What Are Essential Minerals Good For?

Essential minerals are essential for life through their role in the production of energy, bone formation, nucleic acid synthesis (DNA and RNA), hemoglobin synthesis, and metabolism of the cells.

4.2. Why Are Essential Minerals Good for Mental Health?

• Zinc

Zinc is involved in the regulation of gene expression and protein synthesis. As a cofactor for many enzymes, zinc is involved in several metabolic reactions.

 Zinc intake has been associated with a reduced incidence of depression [5]. Zinc deficiency is also involved in learning impairment and olfactory dysfunction [6].

• Iron

Iron is essential for the production of energy (ATP) in the brain. As a coenzyme, Iron is involved in the synthesis of the neurotransmitters, serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine [4].

• Magnesium

Magnesium is involved in several mental health disorders, including anxiety, depression, and migraine.

Magnesium has an essential role in neurotransmission and neuromuscular transduction through its protective function against excitotoxicity (excessive transmission by neurotransmitters) [7].

4.3. Which Food Contains More Essential Minerals?

• Foods that are rich in Zinc include oysters, beef, lobster, pork, cereals, crab, chicken, pumpkin seeds, baked beans, dairy products (milk, yogurt, cheese), cashews, chickpeas, and oatmeal.

• Foods that are rich in Iron include dark-green leafy vegetables, nuts and seeds, meat, fish, tofu, eggs, brown rice, and dried fruit.

• Foods that are rich in Magnesium include green leafy vegetables, such as spinach, nuts, seeds (chia and pumpkin seeds), legumes, and whole grains

5. Vitamin D

5.1. What Is Vitamin D Good For?

Vitamin D is involved in the intestinal absorption of magnesium, phosphate, and calcium necessary for calcium homeostasis and bone metabolism.

5.2. Why Is Vitamin D Good for Mental Health?

A study reported the involvement of vitamin D in schizophrenia associated with low levels of maternal vitamin D during pregnancy [8].

Another study reported an association between low levels of vitamin D and depression [9].

5.3. Which Food Contains More Vitamin D?

Vitamin D is naturally found in many foods such as beef liver, cod liver oil, eggs, salmon, tuna, mackerel, and sardines.

6. Plant-Based Antioxidants

6.1. What Are Plant-Based Antioxidants Good For?

Plant-Based Antioxidants prevent oxidative stress damage to cells that can lead to their death. They perform this action by neutralizing free radicals.

6.2. Why Are Plant-Based Antioxidants Good for Mental Health?

Unbalance in plant-based antioxidants such flavones, polyphenols, flavonoids, phytoestrogens, and catechins, has been shown to promote anxiety and depression.

Plant-based antioxidants prevent anxiety and depression through their role in reducing the inflammation of brain cells and restoring balance to neurotransmitters [10].

6.3. Which Food Contains More Plant-Based Antioxidants?

Foods that are rich in plant-based antioxidants include oilseeds, legumes, tree nuts, plants of the Lamiaceae family, tea and coffee, cereals, fruits, and berries.

7. Probiotics and Prebiotics

7.1. What Are Probiotics and Prebiotics Good For?

Probiotics are the gut’s most known “good bacteria” that are Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. These bacteria help other gut bacteria by providing them with nutrients that are commonly known as prebiotics [11].

The most common prebiotics are fructooligosaccharides, galactooligosaccharides, and trans-galactooligosaccharides, but other prebiotics plays important roles in health and aging such as insulin enriched-oligofructose, lactulose, and oligofructose.

7.2. Why Are Probiotics and Prebiotics Good for Mental Health?

The administration of prebiotics such as non-starch polysaccharides was shown to improve the performance of working and recognition memory and cognitive functions [16][17].

 Another prebiotic known as insulin enriched-oligofructose enhances mood and immediate memory [18].

Lactulose was also shown to improve cognitive function and health-related quality of life [19].

7.3. Which Food Contains More Probiotics and Prebiotics?

Probiotics are found in yogurt, lactobacillus milk, some cheeses such as Gouda, cheddar, cottage cheese, and mozzarella, pickles, sauerkraut, kefir, kimchi, tempeh, kombucha, and miso.

Prebiotics are found in carrots, quinoa, radishes, onions, chicory roots, konjac roots, oats, yams, garlic, barley, wheat bran, berries, apples, asparagus, bananas, leeks, chia seeds, flax seeds, cocoa, coconut, jicama root, and dandelion greens.

Conclusion

Although sometimes we are not aware of the importance of the food we consume, consuming the right nutrients such as omega 3 fatty acids, B vitamins, plant-based antioxidants, probiotics and prebiotics, essential minerals, vitamin D, and amino acids can make a big difference in preventing or reducing mental health issues.

The post What Are the 7 Major Nutrients for Mental Health? appeared first on .

1. Calcium

What does Calcium in the Body?

Calcium is essential for muscle contraction, blood clotting, nerve impulse, building strong bones and teeth, neurotransmission, heartbeat regulation, and fluid balance within our bodies’ cells [1].

Individuals under the age of 50 years, require about 1000 mg daily, while those over the age of 50 years require about 1500 mg daily [2].

Foods that are rich in calcium include dairy products (milk, yogurt, cottage cheese, mozzarella), Tofu, soymilk, sardines, salmon, soybeans, spinach, turnip greens, kale, and beans [2].

2. Phosphorus

What does Phosphorus in the Body?

Phosphorus and specifically its non-organic form, phosphate, is essential for the synthesis of DNA and its messenger RNA, energy production (ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate), enzymatic reactions within the cells (e.g., phosphorylation) that are necessary for the function of cells, the synthesis of phospholipids that make the cells membranes, and for bones, teeth and enamel formation [3].

The daily requirement for individuals over the age of 19 years is about 700 mg [4].

Phosphorus Rich Food

Foods that are rich in phosphorus include dairy products (milk, yogurt, cheese), salmon, scallops, chicken, beef, lentils, cashew nuts, potatoes, kidney beans, and brown rice [4].

3. Potassium

What does Potassium in the Body?

Potassium has a very large role in the human body where it is involved in hormones secretion and function, blood pressure control, fluid, and electrolyte balance, vascular tone (dilation and constriction of vessels), glucose and insulin metabolism, gastro-intestinal mobility, the action of mineralocorticoids (e.g., aldosterone secreted by the adrenal gland), and renal concentrating ability (water conservation).

The daily requirement for individuals over the age of 19 years is about 3000 mg for men and 2600 mg for women [5].

Potassium Rich Food

Potassium is found in many food sources; however, foods that are rich in potassium include apricots, lentils, prunes, squash, raisins, potato, kidney beans, soybeans, banana, spinach, chicken, salmon, dairy products (milk and yogurt), tomato, turkey, soymilk, broccoli, and asparagus [5].

4. Sodium

What does Sodium in the Body?

Sodium is essential for the regulation of the amount of fluid in the blood (blood volume) and in spaces around the cells. It also regulates the blood pressure in the body.

When there is a high level of circulating sodium in the body, sensors that are found in the blood vessels, heart, and kidneys will detect this increase and stimulate the kidneys to get rid of this excess through urine [6].

The daily requirement for adult individuals is no more than 2300 mg [7].

Sodium Rich Food

Foods that are rich in sodium include anchovies, olives, ham, cheese, bacon, salted fish, pickles, shrimps, salami, smoked meat and fish, soy sauce, yeast extracts, and salted nuts.

5. Chloride

What does Chloride in the body?

Chloride is essential for the transmission of nerve impulses, and in maintaining an acid-base balance in the body. It is also a necessary component of gastric juice. Any unbalance in sodium can damage organs and leads to neurological defects [8].

The daily requirement for individuals over the age of 18 years is about 750 mg [8].

Chloride Rich Food

Foods that are rich in chloride include seaweed, tomatoes, rye, celery, lettuce, and olives [9].

6. Magnesium

What does Magnesium in the body?

Magnesium (Mg) is one of the most abundant cations in the body, where it is involved in more than 300 enzymatic reactions, including adenosine triphosphate (ATP) metabolism and protein synthesis. It is also involved in the regulation of blood glucose, muscle and nerve function, and blood pressure [10].

The daily requirement for individuals over the age of 19 years is about 400-420 mg for men and 310-320 mg for women [10].

Magnesium Rich Food

Foods that are rich in magnesium include green leafy vegetables, such as spinach, nuts, seeds (chia and pumpkin seeds), legumes, and whole grains [10].

7. Iron

What does Iron in the body?

Iron is the main component of hemoglobin which plays an essential role in oxygen transport by red blood cells, and therefore, the lack of a physiological amount of iron affects the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood [11].

The daily requirement for Individuals between 19 years and 50 years is about 8 mg for men and 18 mg for women, while its 8 mg for individuals over the age of 50 years for both men and women [11].

Iron Rich Food

Foods that are rich in iron include dark-green leafy vegetables, nuts and seeds, meat, fish, tofu, eggs, brown rice, and dried fruit.

8. Zinc

What does Zinc in the body?

Zinc plays an important role in growth and development, taste, smell, wound healing, immune function, protein synthesis, and the maintenance of skin and hair [12].

The daily requirement for individuals over the age of 19 years is about 11 mg for men and 8 mg for women [12].

Zinc Rich Food

Foods that are rich in zinc include oysters, beef, lobster, pork, cereals, crab, chicken, pumpkin seeds, baked beans, dairy products (milk, yogurt, cheese), cashews, chickpeas, and oatmeal [12].

9. Iodine

What does Iodine in the body?

Iodine is essential for the synthesis of the thyroid hormones thyroxine (T4), and triiodothyronine (T3), by the thyroid, and that are necessary for protein synthesis, metabolic enzymatic reaction, and growth and development [13].

The daily requirement for individuals over the age of 19 years is about 150 mcg [14].

Zinc Rich Food

Foods that are rich in iodine include seaweed, bread, cod, oysters, dairy products (milk, yogurt, and cheese), eggs, shrimps, and tuna [14].

10. Chromium

What does Chromium in the body?

Although chromium is required in a small quantity, it is needed for the function of insulin that regulates the level of glucose in the body and may also have an antioxidant function [15].

The daily requirement for Individuals between 19 years and 50 years is about 35 mcg for men and 25 mcg for women, while its 30 mcg for men and 20 mcg for women over the age of 50 years [16].

Chromium Rich Food

Foods that are rich in chromium include meats, fruits, vegetables, grain products, nuts, spices, beer, and wine.

11. Copper

What does Copper in the body?

Copper is a cofactor for several enzymes implicated in the production of energy (ATP), the activation of neuropeptides that are chemical messengers released by neurons, the synthesis of connective tissue, iron metabolism, and the synthesis of neurotransmitters [17].

The daily requirement for individuals over the age of 19 years is about 900 mcg [17].

Copper Rich Food

Foods that are rich in copper include shellfish, chocolate, seeds and nuts, wheat-bran cereals, whole-grain products, and organ meats.

12. Fluoride

What does Fluoride in the body?

Fluoride is naturally found in the body as calcium fluoride that is required for new bone formation and for preventing teeth decay [18].

The daily requirement for individuals over the age of 9 years is about 10 mg [19].

Fluoride Rich Food

Foods that are rich in fluoride include black tea, raisins, wine, fluoridated water, lamb, and carrots.

13. Selenium

What does Selenium in the body?

Selenium is essential for the metabolism of thyroid hormones, DNA synthesis, protection from infection and oxidative damage (antioxidant), and for reproduction [20].

The daily requirement for Individuals over the age of 9 years is about 55 mcg [21].

Selenium Rich Food

Foods that are rich in fluoride include Brazil nuts, organ meats, and seafood.

14. Manganese

What does Manganese in the body?

Manganese is involved in the metabolism of amino acids, cholesterol, and carbohydrate metabolism through its coenzyme activity (work together with an enzyme). It is also an important factor in bone formation, immune response, reproduction, and blood clotting [22].

The daily requirement for individuals over the age of 19 years is about 2.3 mg for men and 1.8 mg for women [23].

Manganese Rich Food

Foods that are rich in manganese include clams, mussels, oysters, nuts, soybeans, whole grains, rice, and many spices, leafy vegetables, coffee, and tea.

15. Sulfur

What does Sulfur in the body?

Sulfur is a necessary component of the essential amino acids, methionine, and cysteine, that are part of the building blocks of many proteins, enzymes, and vitamins. It is also essential in producing keratin, collagen, and insulin [24].

The National Academies Food and Nutrition Board suggests an amount of 0.2 to 1.5 grams per day should be sufficient for our body needs [25].

Sulfur Rich Food

Foods that are rich in sulfur include eggs, seafood, beef, chicken, pork, nuts, milk and cheese, green leafy vegetables, onion, and garlic.

16. Cobalt

What does Sulfur in the body?

Cobalt is an essential mineral for the synthesis of vitamin B12 that acts as a coenzyme involved in fatty acids and protein metabolisms, DNA synthesis, red blood cells’ maturation, and myelin synthesis (a protein covering some neurons) [26]. 

The daily requirement for individuals has not been determined yet.

Cobalt Rich Food

Foods that are rich in cobalt include meat, green leafy vegetables, liver, milk, clams, and oysters.

17. Molybdenum

What does Molybdenum in the body?

Molybdenum is an essential component of an enzyme known as xanthine oxidase that plays an important role in the catabolism of purines necessary for the synthesis of DNA and its messenger, RNA [27].

The daily requirement for individuals over the age of 19 years is about 2000 mcg [27].

Molybdenum Rich Food

Foods that are rich in molybdenum include Legumes, nuts, whole grains, and beef liver

Conclusion

Essential minerals are involved in critical physiological processes within the adult’s body and during embryonic growth and development, and childhood. A lack of sufficient amounts can lead to mineral deficiencies, while their excess within the body can lead to severe intoxications and diseases.

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