Crohn’s disease Archives -

What Are the 5 Classic Signs of Inflammation?

Tarik Regad — Mon, 10 Jan 2022 23:46:24 +0000

Inflammation is a natural process by which the body’s immune system fights against injuries, infections, chemicals, and radiation. It is characterized by the following signs:

Redness
Swelling
Heat
Pain
Loss of Function

1. What Is the Main Cause of Inflammation in the Body?

There are many causes of inflammation that is triggered by the body’s immune system:

Injury such as a splinter, scrapes, trauma, or any damage caused by a foreign object.
Pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, parasites, or fungi
Chemicals such as glucose, fatty acids, chemical irritants (e.g., acids), toxins, and alcohol
Radiation such as sunburns
Biological such as damaged cells in the body

2. What Happens During Inflammation?

Inflammation involves the contribution of different immune cells which release substances known as inflammatory mediators, including hormones such as histamine and bradykinin [1].

These inflammatory mediators induce vasodilation (dilatation of the vessels) which promotes the blood flow in the injured tissue and the recruitment of inflammatory cells (neutrophils, monocytes, and endothelial cells) to the site of injury.

The vasodilatation and the blood rush into the injured tissue result in redness and heat which are 2 signs of acute inflammation.

The pain associated with inflammation is caused by the irritation of local nerves by the inflammatory mediators.

These inflammatory cells have specific roles during acute inflammation:

Neutrophils initiate the phagocytosis and killing of pathogens to decontaminate the wound, while also promoting cell proliferation and angiogenesis.
Monocytes also contribute to the phagocytosis and killing of pathogens, and become macrophages, which remove dead cells, and support cell proliferation and tissue restoration following injury.
Endothelial cells are the building blocks for vessels, and during wound healing, these cells generate new vessels (angiogenesis) to satisfy the metabolic demands of the highly proliferative healing tissue.

Depending on the site of injury, a transitory loss of function can be observed due to tissue damage, swelling, or pain during inflammation.

3. How long Does Inflammation Last For?

Inflammation can be acute lasting for a few days (2-3 days) or chronic which lasts for a longer time until the insult is resolved.

What Are the Outcomes of Inflammation?

The resolution of acute inflammation (initial inflammation) depends on the causes and the extent of tissue damage. It is characterized by the following outcomes:

Complete repair of the injured tissue and without scars
Resolution of the inflammation with the formation of a scar or fibrosis
Formation of an abscess
Chronic inflammation if the initial inflammation persists and remains unresolved

The complete repair of the injured tissue or the formation of scars is mediated by a process known as wound healing.

Wound healing is a natural reaction of our body to tissue damage and involves crosstalk between different cells, cytokines, inflammatory mediators, and the vascular system to repair the damaged tissue.

4. What Are the Most Common Inflammatory Diseases?

The most common inflammatory diseases are associated with chronic mediated inflammation which includes the following diseases [2]:

Rheumatoid Arthritis
Cardiovascular diseases
Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)
Allergic Asthma
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
Diabetes
Chronic Kidney Disease
Cancer

4.1. Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis is due to a local chronic inflammation that results in the infiltration of immune cells into the joints and the release of inflammatory mediators such as cytokines.

4.2. Cardiovascular diseases

Atherosclerosis is associated with a chronic inflammation that leads to heart diseases such as stroke, and myocardial infarction.

4.3. Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)

Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) is a group of chronic inflammatory disorders affecting the bowels that are caused by ulcerative colitis (inflammation of the colon due to ulcer) or Crohn’s disease.

4.4. Allergic Asthma

Allergic asthma is due to the inflammation of the airways caused by the inhalation of an allergen which results in their swelling and tightening affecting breathing.

4.5. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

COPD is a chronic inflammatory lung disease due to the exposure of the airways to harmful particles or gases causing inflammation that obstruct airflow in the lung leading to breathing difficulties.

4.6. Diabetes

One of the characteristics of diabetes is the infiltration of immune cells, such as macrophages, into pancreatic tissue, and their release of pro-inflammatory molecules responsible for inflammation.

4.7. Chronic Kidney Disease (CDK)

Chronic kidney disease or chronic kidney failure is a progressive loss of the function of the kidney resulting from the accumulation of body wastes and fluids in the blood.

One of the causes of chronic kidney disease is the inflammation of the glomeruli that filter blood for the elimination of waste and fluids in urine.

4.8. Cancer

Chronic inflammation is one of the characteristics of different types of cancer from various origins (Prostate, hepatic, colorectal, ovarian, pancreatic, and lung cancers).

4.9. Neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease are associated with the production of proinflammatory molecules by the brain resident immune cells and microglia which cause brain damage.

5. What Is the Difference Between Inflammation and Infection?

Infections cause inflammation which is a natural process by which the body’s immune system fights against pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites.

6. How Do You Get Rid of Inflammation in the Body?

Unlike acute inflammation, chronic inflammation can last for a longer period, and therefore, requires management and treatment through lifestyle changes or medications [3].

6.1. Lifestyle changes

6.1.1. Diet

A diet rich in glucose and processed food rich in saturated fat and trans fats promotes inflammation leading to cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes. Hence, a low glucose diet and avoiding processed food can prevent inflammation.

A diet rich in vegetables and fish oils, nuts, mung bean, green and black teas, and certain species (e.g., ginger, turmeric) can prevent or reduce inflammation as they contain antioxidants and polyphenols which have anti-inflammatory properties.

6.1.2. Physical Activity

In addition to weight loss associated with exercising, physical activity also results in energy consumption with reduces the levels of proinflammatory molecules in the body.

6.2. Medications

The most used anti-inflammatory medications include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and corticosteroids.

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as naproxen, ibuprofen, and aspirin, alleviate pain by inhibiting the function of the enzyme cyclooxygenase (Cox) involved in the synthesis of the proinflammatory molecules, prostaglandins.

Corticosteroids are prescribed for some inflammatory conditions such as arthritis, asthma, systemic lupus, and sarcoidosis.

Conclusion

Acute inflammation is a natural process by which the body’s immune system responds to injuries and infections. Acute inflammation takes a few days to resolve, leading to a complete repair of damaged tissues, fibrosis (scars), formation of an abscess, or chronic inflammation.

Chronic inflammation can be associated with several inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, allergic asthma, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, chronic kidney disease, COPD, inflammatory bowel disease, and neurodegenerative diseases.

The treatment of chronic inflammation includes lifestyle changes, physical activity, and medications using anti-inflammatory drugs such as NSAIDs and corticosteroids.

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The Gut Flora and Long Lifespan

Tarik Regad — Thu, 15 Apr 2021 13:33:56 +0000

The gut flora is a heterogeneous population of micro-organisms that includes bacteria, fungi, and archaea, and that plays important role in the digestion and absorbance of food. Transplantation of fecal microbiota from younger mice (Donor) to older (Recipient) enhanced their health and lifespan (longevity).

During the process of aging, the function of beneficial microbes, that provide necessary nutrients for the body tissues, are severely affected, while harmful microbes, that contribute to the process, such as chronic inflammation and cancer, flourish [1][2][3][4][5].

What Evidence Supports the Role of the Gut Flora in Longevity?

Several in vivo studies demonstrated that fecal microbiota transplantation from younger mice (Donor) to older (Recipient) enhanced their health and lifespan. This procedure led to the restoration of healthy microbiota in the recipient suggesting its potential application in the field of longevity.

These conclusions are reinforced through the study of progeria mice, a model characterized by an advanced aging process and that has dysfunctional gut flora (Dysbiosis), like that of progeria patients. The researchers demonstrated that fecal microbiota transplantation from wild-type mice enhanced health span and lifespan in progeroid mouse models [6].

What Bacteria Are found in the Gut?

The gut contains about 1000 species of bacteria and the most dominant species are Bacteroides, Fusobacterium, Eubacterium, Ruminococcus, Peptococcus, Peptostreptococcus, Bifidobacterium, and Clostridium.

What Are the Good Bacteria in the Gut?

The gut’s most known “good bacteria” are Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, also known as probiotics. These bacteria help other gut bacteria by providing them with nutrients that are commonly known as prebiotics [7].

What Are the Health Benefits of Good Bacteria?

Probiotics have been shown to prevent symptoms of allergies, diabetes type 2 (Diabetes Miletus), autoimmune diseases, rheumatoid arthritis, cancer, diarrhea, constipation, irritable bowel syndrome, Crohn’s disease, and obesity.

Because they produce lactic acid, Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium also suppress pathogens in healthy individuals through induction of immunomodulatory molecules with antagonistic effects [8].

What food Help Good Bacteria in the Gut?

To help the growth of good bacteria in the gut, you can consume products that contain probiotics, prebiotics, or both:

1- Probiotics Food

Probiotics are found in yogurt, lactobacillus milk, some cheeses such as Gouda, cheddar, cottage cheese, mozzarella, pickles, sauerkraut, kefir, kimchi, tempeh, kombucha, and miso.

2- Prebiotic food

Prebiotics are found in carrots, quinoa, radishes, onions, chicory roots, konjac roots, oats, yams, garlic, barley, wheat bran, berries, apples, asparagus, bananas, leeks, chia seeds, flax seeds, cocoa, coconut, jicama root, and dandelion greens.

How Does Prebiotics Help Good Bacteria in the Gut?

The most common prebiotics are fructooligosaccharides, galactooligosaccharides, and trans-galactooligosaccharides, but other prebiotics plays important roles in health and aging such as insulin enriched-oligofructose, lactulose, and oligofructose.

They are indigestible carbohydrates that are fermented and broken down by probiotics to obtain survival energy, and short-chain fatty acids such as lactic acid, butyric acid, and propionic acid [8].

How Does Prebiotics Maintain health and protect against Diseases?

1- Prebiotics’ Effects on Gastrointestinal Disorders

The administration of the prebiotic fructo-oligosaccharides to patients diagnosed with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) or Crohn’s disease (CD) has been shown to significantly improve the symptoms of the two disorders in randomized double-blind, and placebo-controlled clinical trials [9][10].

Additionally, symbiotic therapy using Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium has been shown to reduce the risk of colorectal cancer by inhibiting the proliferation of colorectal cancer cells [11].

2- Prebiotics’ Effects on the Immune System

Prebiotics induce the expression of cytokines that promote communication between immune cells leading to improved immune response and protection against infections and other diseases such as cancer and neurodegenerative diseases.

Several studies showed that the administration of fructo-oligosaccharides improves antibody response to viral vaccines [12][13], upregulates toll-like receptor 2-mediated immune response [14], and increased phagocytosis, and the levels of NK cells and the anti-inflammatory IL-10 [15].

3- Prebiotics’ Effects on the Nervous System

The administration of prebiotics such as non-starch polysaccharides was shown to improve the performance of working and recognition memory and cognitive functions [16][17], while another prebiotic known as insulin enriched-oligofructose enhances mood and immediate memory [18]. Lactulose was also shown to improve cognitive function and health-related quality of life [19].

4- Prebiotics’ Effects on the Cardio-vascular System

The prebiotics inulin has been shown to reduce cardiovascular diseases by reducing the levels of HDL-cholesterol, triglycerides, and lipoprotein A [20], while lactulose reduces the concentrations of free fatty acids that are originated from colon absorption [21].

5- Prebiotics’ Effects on the Skin

The administration of galactooligosaccharides with and without probiotics was shown to prevent the reduction in water and keratin caused by phenols that denatures proteins and disrupt disulfide bridges in the skin keratin [22].

Conclusion

The gut flora is essential for health, aging, and longevity and its unbalance (Dysbiosis) can lead to severe health consequences through the lack of availability of quality nutrients that are necessary for preventing diseases such as infections, cardiovascular diseases, nervous system, gastrointestinal, skin, and immune disorders that significantly promote aging, reduces the quality of life, and shorten longevity.

Therefore, the consumption of probiotics and prebiotics can considerably prevent these consequences and ensure a longer and high quality of life.

References

[1] Leulier, F. et al. Integrative physiology: at the crossroads of nutrition, microbiota, animal physiology and human health. Cell Metab. 25, 522–534 (2017).

[2] Koeth, R. A. et al. Intestinal microbiota metabolism of L-carnitine, a nutrient in red meat, promotes atherosclerosis. Nat. Med. 19, 576–585 (2013).

[3] Loomba, R. et al. Gut microbiome-based metagenomic signature for non-invasive detection of advanced fibrosis in human nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Cell Metab. 25, 1054–1062 (2017).

[4] Qin, J. et al. A metagenome-wide association study of gut microbiota in type 2 diabetes. Nature 490, 55–60 (2012).

[5] Zitvogel, L., Daillere, R., Roberti, M. P., Routy, B. & Kroemer, G. Anticancer effects of the microbiome and its products. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 15, 465–478 (2017).

[6] Bárcena, Clea, et al. “Healthspan and lifespan extension by fecal microbiota transplantation into progeroid mice.” Nature medicine 25.8 (2019): 1234-1242.

[7] Wang, H., Wei, C.X., Min, L. and Zhu, L.Y., 2018. Good or bad: gut bacteria in human health and diseases. Biotechnology & Biotechnological Equipment, 32(5), pp.1075-1080.

[8] Davani-Davari, D., Negahdaripour, M., Karimzadeh, I., Seifan, M., Mohkam, M., Masoumi, S.J., Berenjian, A. and Ghasemi, Y., 2019. Prebiotics: definition, types, sources, mechanisms, and clinical applications. Foods, 8(3), p.92.

[9] Lindsay, J.O., Whelan, K., Stagg, A.J., Gobin, P., Al-Hassi, H.O., Rayment, N., Kamm, M.A., Knight, S.C. and Forbes, A., 2006. Clinical, microbiological, and immunological effects of fructo-oligosaccharide in patients with Crohn’s disease. Gut, 55(3), pp.348-355.

[10] Silk, D.B.A., Davis, A., Vulevic, J., Tzortzis, G. and Gibson, G.R., 2009. Clinical trial: the effects of a trans‐galactooligosaccharide prebiotic on faecal microbiota and symptoms in irritable bowel syndrome. Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics, 29(5), pp.508-518.