1. What Does the Brainstem Do?

The brainstem serves as a communication point between the body, the spinal cord, and the brain through ascending and descending sensory and motor pathways [1].

Ascending pathways are groups of nerve fibers that bring sensory and motor information from the body (peripheral nervous system) to the brain through the spinal cord, while descending pathways work in the opposite way.

Ascending and descending pathways are also known as ascending and descending tracts of the spinal cord.

The brainstem also contains most cranial nerve nuclei (group of neurons), and therefore, is involved in the processing of efferent (coming from) information of the head.  

As the brainstem is made of the midbrain, pons, and medulla, it performs its functions through these structures.

2. What Does the Midbrain Do?

Midbrain or mesencephalon is the most rostral part (top) of the brainstem, found just below the cerebral cortex and above the pons. It is involved in vision, hearing, sleep, wakefulness, temperature regulation, alertness (arousal), and motor control [2]. 

It is composed of the tectum, the tegmentum, and cerebral peduncles, and receives blood supply from the basilar artery, superior cerebellar artery, and posterior cerebellar artery.

The tectum is divided into the superior colliculi that contain nuclei (group of neurons) involved in visual (vision) reflexes and the inferior colliculi involved in auditory (hearing) reflexes.

The tegmentum is divided into the substantia Negra where dopamine is released to the basal ganglia, and the red nucleus, which is involved, together with the cerebellum, in movement coordination.

The cerebral peduncles are paired structures separated by the interpeduncular cistern (Filled with cerebrospinal fluid) that connects the brainstem to the thalami (plural of the thalamus).

Lesions affecting the midbrain such as infarct, tumor, hemorrhage, or infections, can result in neurological disorders, including Benedikt syndrome, Claude syndrome, Weber syndrome, or Nothnagel syndrome.

These neurological disorders are characterized by palsies (paralysis) and ataxia (movement incoordination).

3. What Does the Pons Do?

The pons or pons Varolii is the structure of the brainstem located between the midbrain and the medulla (Medulla oblongata) and serves as a relay between the cerebral hemispheres and the cerebellum [3].

It is divided into the basilar part of the pons (Basis pontis) and the pontine tegmentum and receives blood supply from branches of the superior cerebellar artery and the pontine branches of the basilar artery.

The basilar part of the pons contains the pontine nuclei (cluster of neurons) that relay motor information coming from the motor cortex in the frontal lobe to the cerebellum. This activity is mediated by the corticofugal fibers.

The pontine tegmentum contains nuclei involved in sleep and wakefulness, breathing, and alertness.

It also contains nuclei of the cranial nerves, trigeminal (V), abducens (VI), facial (VII), and vestibulocochlear (VIII), and therefore, is also involved in the functions of these trigeminal nerves.

Lesions affecting the pons such as infarct, hemorrhage, tumors, or infections, can lead to the following neurological disorders:

• Gasperini Syndrome
• Facial Colliculus Syndrome
• Millard-Gubler Syndrome
• Brissaud-Sicard Syndrome
• Raymond Syndrome
• Foville Syndrome
• Marie-Foix Syndrome
• Locked-In Syndrome
• Tuberculosis Rhombencephalis

These neurological disorders are characterized by palsies (paralysis), ataxia, and symptoms associated with alterations in the function of some cranial nerves, such as loss of taste, loss of pain, temperature sensations on the face, or hearing loss.

4. What Does the Medulla Do?

The medulla (Medulla oblongata) is the part of the brainstem located between the pons and the spinal cord. It is responsible for the body’s involuntary functions (autonomous nervous system) such as cardiovascular function, heart rate, breathing, sleep-wake cycle, vomiting, sneezing, and swallowing [4].

The medulla is composed of the ventral medulla and the medulla tegmentum and receives its blood supply from the posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA), the anterior spinal artery, and branches of the distal vertebral artery.

The ventral medulla contains the olive, the pyramidal tracts, and the rootlets (nerve fibers) of the cranial nerve IX (Glossopharyngeal nerve) and XII (Hypoglossal nerve).

The olive is involved in movement coordination and in sound perception, while the pyramidal tracts are involved in the movement of muscles, and the rootlets of cranial nerve IX and XII carry away information from the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) to the tongue, pharynx, larynx, parotid gland, and sinus.

The medulla tegmentum contains the inferior olivary nuclei and the nuclei of the cranial nerves IX to XII.

Lesions affecting the medulla oblongata such as infarct, hemorrhage, tumors, or degeneration, lead to the following neurological disorders:

• Babinski-Nageotte Syndrome
• Opalski Syndrome
• Wallenberg Syndrome
• Déjerine syndrome
• Wallerian Degeneration
• Demyelinating lesions
• Hypertrophic Olivary Degeneration
• Brainstem Glioma
• Syringobulbia

These neurological disorders manifest with symptoms such hemiparesis/hemiplegia, paralysis of parts of the body (e.g., tongue, soft palate, the pupil of the eye), ataxia, sensory deficits, and slurred speech.

5. What Are the Developmental Anomalies of the Brainstem?

Developmental anomalies of the brainstem are disorders that are originated during embryonic development of the brainstem [4].

The main known developmental disorders of the brainstem are Möbius syndrome (congenital facial diplegia syndrome) and axonal guidance disorders.

5.1. What Is Möbius syndrome?

Möbius syndrome or congenital facial diplegia syndrome is due to the underdevelopment or absence of the nuclei of the abducens cranial nerve (VI) and the facial cranial nerve (VII) resulting in paralysis of one side (unilateral) or both sides (bilateral) of the face muscles [5].

5.2. What Are Axonal Guidance Disorders of the Brainstem?

This group of disorders is associated with abnormal white matter tracts in the brainstem such as ectopic white matter tracts or anomalies in their location [6].

These disorders result in disorders such as horizontal gaze palsy, Joubert syndrome, progressive scoliosis, and pontine tegmental cap dysplasia [4].

Conclusion

The brainstem is made of the midbrain, pons, and the medulla oblongata and plays an essential role in communicating information between the body, the spinal cord, the cerebellum, and the brain.

This information includes instruction related to vision, hearing, sleep, wakefulness, temperature regulation, alertness (arousal), motor control, and the autonomous nervous system.

Lesions such as those caused by trauma, hemorrhage, tumors, or infections can affect the different parts of the brainstem (midbrain, pons, and the medulla oblongata) resulting in paralysis of parts of the body, ataxia, and sensory deficits.

The post What Is the Brainstem? appeared first on .

• Odour sensing by receptors of the olfactory sensory neurons in the nose.
• The olfactory sensory neurons in the nose transmit the odour information (olfactory information) to the olfactory nerves through a process known as neurotransmission.
• The olfactory nerves transmit the olfactory information to the olfactory bulb, a neural structure responsible of olfaction (Smell).
• The olfactory bulb transmits the olfactory information to specific areas of the brain for processing and identification of the smell.

1. What Part of the Brain Is Most Responsible for Smell?

There are several and important parts of the brain that are responsible for smell; however, the olfactory bulb is responsible for transmitting the olfactory (smell) information from the olfactory nerves to the brain for processing.

This olfactory information is chemically identified and coded by a part of the olfactory bulb known as the glomeruli. This process is known as the odor map [1].

2. What Happens in the Brain When You Smell?

When the olfactory information is transmitted from the olfactory bulb to the brain, there are parts of the brain responsible for the processing of this information including the amygdala, the piriform cortex, and the entorhinal cortex [2].

• The Amygdala and Olfaction

The amygdala is the central hub for the management of fear within a network that involves other brain organs including the thalamus, the neocortex, the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, the hippocampus, and the adrenal glands located on the top of the kidneys.

When the amygdala receives the olfactory information for processing it interrogates the memory siege, the hippocampus, for previous similar stimuli (e.g., olfactory stimuli).

Once the information is received from the hippocampus, the amygdala triggers the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis to initiate an adaptative reaction [3].

Depending on the nature of the smell which can be pleasant or unpleasant, associated or not with potential danger, a reaction such as robust approach (pleasant olfaction) or withdrawal if unpleasant or linked with potential danger (e.g., the smell of smoke due to fire) [4].

• The Olfactory Tubercle and Olfaction

The olfactory tubercle is part of the olfactory cortex found in the frontal lobe of the brain where is connected to the amygdala and the hippocampus.

It is involved in recognizing one’s body odor from the environment odors (sensory integration), motivated behaviors in response to odor (attractiveness or repulsion), and reward recognition [1].

• The Piriform Cortex and Olfaction

The piriform cortex is part of the brain known as the rhinencephalon located in the cerebrum. It is involved in odor perception and its differentiation from other odors and from a mixture of odors, and in odor memory [5].

• The Entorhinal Cortex and Olfaction

The Entorhinal cortex is part of the cerebral cortex where it plays a role as an interface between the hippocampus that is involved in memory and the neocortex involved in sensory perception (e.g., olfaction) spatial reasoning, and navigation, and cognition [6].

4. Can Smells Trigger Emotions?

There are common brain areas that are involved in both olfaction and emotion such as the amygdala, the hippocampus, the orbitofrontal cortex, the insula, and the cingulate cortex.

When the amygdala receives the olfactory information for processing it interrogates the memory siege, the hippocampus, for previous similar stimuli (e.g., olfactory stimuli).

Depending on the nature of the smell which can be pleasant or unpleasant, associated or not with potential danger, a reaction such as robust approach (pleasant olfaction) or withdrawal if unpleasant or linked with potential danger (e.g., the smell of smoke due to fire) [7].

The orbitofrontal cortex is involved in the reward value of taste but also in the reward value of odors which initiate an emotion [8].

The insula is a part of the cerebral cortex involved in emotion and in the processing of unpleasant odors [9].

The cingulate cortex is also part of the cerebral cortex that is involved in the formation and processing of emotions related to pleasant and unpleasant odors [10].

5. Does Smell Affect Memory?

Olfaction requires the involvement of the hippocampus, the brain part that controls memory. The amygdala processing of the olfactory information involves interrogating the hippocampus about previous experiences with the olfactory information.

6. What Is It Called When a Smell Triggers a Memory?

This effect is known as the Proustian effect based on the name of the novelist Marcel Proust.

7. Why Do Smells Make Me Angry?

The smell can trigger anger if that smell was associated with a past situation that caused anger to an individual.

The amygdala processing of the olfactory information involves interrogating the hippocampus about previous experiences with the olfactory information.

The olfactory information can also trigger emotions of anger through parts of the brain such as the amygdala, the hippocampus, the orbitofrontal cortex, the insula, and the cingulate cortex.

8. What Causes Loss of Smell?

The loss of smell can be complete and is known as anosmia or diminished and is known as hyposmia. These alterations in olfaction are due to physical or mental health disorders, viral infections, inflammation, environmental exposure, or aging [2].

Disorders or conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, meningiomas, facial trauma or schizophrenia, may affect the function of the olfactory system leading to a loss of smell.

Upper respiratory viral infections and neurotropic viruses can also cause a loss of smell.

Neurotoxins found in some industrial workplaces such as solvents, metals, and particulate matter can cause a loss of smell [11].

9. What Is Aromatherapy and Its Benefits?

Aromatherapy is the use of plant essential oils through skin application or olfaction for the management of chronic pain, anxiety, some cognitive disorders, depression, insomnia, and stress-related disorders [12].

However, the clinical evidence is limited, and further research and clinical trials are required.

These are some of the essential plant oils that were used in different studies:

• Bergamot
• Chamomile-Roman
• Geranium
• Jasmine
• Juniper
• Lavender
• Lemon
• Mandarin
• Marjoram
• Melissa
• Neroli
• Patchouli
• Rose
• Rosemary
• Sage
• Spearmint
• Ylang-Ylang
• Vetiver

Conclusion

Olfaction is a complex process that involves the transmission of the olfactory information (smell) by specialized sensory neurons in the nose, the olfactory nerves, the olfactory bulb, and its processing by several regions of the brain.

Meanwhile, let’s enjoy the smell of a nice dish of food and a delicate perfume.

The post How Does Smell Get from the Nose to the Brain? appeared first on .