Here are some tips to help keep your nervous system healthy:

1. Eat a balanced diet that includes plenty of fruits and vegetables.

A balanced diet that includes plenty of fruits and vegetables is key to maintaining a healthy lifestyle. Fruits and vegetables are packed with nutrients that can help improve your cholesterol levels, regulate blood sugar levels, and reduce your risk of developing heart disease or other chronic diseases.

In addition to promoting overall health, eating a balanced diet can also help you look and feel better. A varied selection of fruits and vegetables will give you the vitamins, minerals, fiber, and antioxidants you need to stay energetic all day long.

2. Get regular exercise.

Regular exercise can help improve mood and reduce stress levels. A study published in the journal “Frontiers in Human Neuroscience” found that even 30 minutes of physical activity each day can have a positive impact on mental health [1].

The researchers found that people who exercised reported feeling more relaxed and less stressed, and that these benefits were especially pronounced for people who identified as highly stressed before beginning the study.

In addition, the researchers noted that regular exercise can also help reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, getting at least 30 minutes of exercise each day can help improve your overall health. Not only will you feel better physically, but you’ll also see improvements in your mood and stress levels.

Exercise has been shown to be an effective way to reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression, so it’s important to find something that you enjoy doing and stick with it.

3. Get adequate sleep every night.

Sleep is essential for a healthy nervous system. When you don’t get enough sleep, your body can’t function at its best. Lack of sleep can lead to anxiety, depression, and other mental health problems.

The National Sleep Foundation recommends getting at least 7 hours of sleep every night to stay healthy.

If you’re struggling to get enough sleep, make sure to follow these tips:

1) Avoid screens before bedtime: Screens cause light exposure in the evening which can delay your body’s natural sleep cycle. Try to avoid screens within 30 minutes of going to bed.

2) Keep a regular sleep schedule: Sticking to a regular sleep schedule helps regulate your body’s natural sleeping rhythms. waking up and going back to bed on the same schedule each day helps your body learn when it needs rest and wake up time.

4. Avoid alcohol and drugs

Drugs and alcohol can damage the nervous system over time. Alcohol can increase the risk of developing cirrhosis, a serious liver disease. Drug use also increases your risk of developing anxiety, brain fog, depression, and other mental health problems. Taking drugs and alcohol together can further increase your risk of experiencing adverse effects. If you’re struggling with drug or alcohol abuse, it’s important to seek help. Treatment can help you to avoid long-term damage to your nervous system.

5. Reduce stress

Stress is a term often used to describe feelings of anxiety or worry. It can be both mental and physical. The nervous system is affected when stress levels are high, and the body can react in several ways.

The nervous system can create problems such as headaches, fatigue, heart problems, and gastrointestinal issues. However, when stress becomes chronic or excessive, it can have a negative impact on our health.

The nervous system is particularly sensitive to stress and can be damaged in the short term or over time. Here are a few ways to reduce your stress levels:

1. Get enough sleep. Sleep is crucial for overall health and well-being, and it’s especially important for people who are stressed out. When you don’t get enough sleep, your body’s cortisol levels increase, which can lead to weight gain, inflammation, and other problems.

2. Exercise regularly. Exercise has been shown to reduce stress and improve overall mental health by boosting mood and physical activity releases endorphins – feel-good hormones – which can help reduce anxiety and depression symptoms.

3. Take some time for yourself every day. Find something that relaxes you and do it regularly. This could be reading a book, taking a walk, listening to music, or spending time with friends.

4. Practice yoga or another form of relaxation exercise regularly. This will help to improve your flexibility and concentration skills, which will in turn reduce your stress levels.

5. Make sure that you get enough sleep each night. Not getting enough sleep can lead to increased levels of stress hormones in the body, which can further damage your health.

6. Avoid eating foods that make you tense up quickly (such as spicy foods).

5. Keep your blood pressure in check: hypertension can damage the nervous system

High blood pressure (HBP) is a major risk factor for heart disease, stroke, kidney failure, and other conditions.

More than 24 million Americans have hypertension, and the incidence of the condition is rising. High blood pressure is caused by increased levels of blood pressure in the arteries.

The most common cause of hypertension is a high blood sugar level, but it can also be caused by obesity, age, genetics, and muscle mass.

Hypertension can damage the nervous system by increasing your risk of developing stroke, brain hemorrhage, and other conditions.

Proper treatment for hypertension includes lifestyle changes such as weight loss and exercise, medication to lower blood pressure, and ACE inhibitors or angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors to prevent heart attack or stroke.

Conclusion

The nervous system is responsible for controlling our body’s muscles, organs, and other systems. A healthy nervous system ensures that our body functions properly. Damage to the nervous system can cause problems with movement, coordination, and health in general.

Exercise is important for a healthy nervous system. It helps to promote circulation and strengthen the muscles.

Sleep is also important for a healthy nervous system. It helps to restore the body’s energy and keep the mind alert.

A healthy diet is another key part of keeping a healthy nervous system. It includes foods that are packed with nutrients and minerals, which help to protect the nerves from damage.

Drugs and alcohol can damage the nerves too, so it’s important to be careful when using them. Mediation can also be helpful for maintaining a healthy nervous system.

The post How to Keep Your Nervous System Healthy and Happy appeared first on .

RLS is a common disease that affects about 10% of the general population [1].

1. What Is the Main Cause of Restless Leg Syndrome?

Although the cause is unknown, it is thought that the main cause of restless leg syndrome (RLS) is associated with an imbalance in the function of the neurotransmitter dopamine due to low levels of iron in the brain and body [1].

Dopamine is an organic chemical involved in the transmission of instructions between neurons to control muscle movements and reward-motivated behavior [2].

Other potential causes involve heredity, pregnancy, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and medications.

1.1. What Is the Relation Between Restless Leg Syndrome and Heredity?

A role of heredity in RLS is associated with the high frequency of family history of RLS in patients diagnosed with this disease [3].

Monozygotic and dizygotic twin studies confirmed heredity involvement in RLS by showing the existence of a high concordance of RLS in monozygotic twins compared with that in dizygotic twins.

1.2. What Is the Relation Between Restless Leg Syndrome and Pregnancy?

Due to hormonal changes during the third semester of pregnancy, some women may experience RLS which disappears after delivery [4].

These changes involve an increase in the production of hormones, including estrogens, prolactin, progesterone, and thyroid hormone.

A reduction of iron and folate levels during pregnancy also appears to contribute to RLS due to their involvement in the synthesis of dopamine which further highlights the role of dopamine as the main cause of restless leg syndrome.

The prevalence of RLS during pregnancy was estimated to be in the range of 2.9-32% which is about 2-3 times higher than that in non-pregnant women.

1.3. What Is the Relation Between Restless Leg Syndrome and ADHD?

A relation Between Restless Leg Syndrome and ADHD was proposed by a study that showed that 44% of individuals with ADHD also had RLS.

Another important piece of information to add is that both ADHD and RLS have alterations related to dopamine levels in the brain [5].

1.4. What Is the Relation Between Restless Leg Syndrome and Medications?

Certain medications have been associated with restless leg syndrome, such as antidepressants (e.g., SSRIs, Tricyclics), withdrawal from sedative-hypnotic drugs (e.g., benzodiazepines), antiemetics (e.g., anticholinergics), antipsychotics, anticonvulsants, and antihistamines (e.g., diphenhydramine) [6].

Furthermore, alcohol and opioid withdrawal have also been associated with RLS.

2. Who Is Prone to Restless Leg Syndrome?

Restless leg syndrome (RLS) can develop at any age but is more common in women than men. There are also some factors that can increase the risk of RLS:

• Low Iron Levels
• Kidney Failure
• Neuropathy
• Rheumatoid Arthritis
• Diabetes Mellitus
• Celiac Disease
• Alcohol
• Iron Deficiency Anemia
• Parkinson’s Disease

2.1. Low Iron Levels

Iron is an essential cofactor in the production of dopamine and its deficiency can trigger RLS. Low iron levels can be due to blood loss through internal hemorrhage (e.g., gastrointestinal bleeding), excessive menstrual bleeding, frequent blood donations, or malabsorption.

2.2. Kidney Failure

Patients with chronic kidney disease on dialysis have decreased levels of iron due to the depletion of its storage in the blood.

2.3. Neuropathy

Increased levels of glucose in the blood such as during diabetes can lead to damage of nerves resulting in RLS.

2.4. Rheumatoid Arthritis

There is an elevated prevalence of RLS in patients with rheumatoid arthritis reaching between 27.7-31% [7].

2.5. Alcohol

Excessive consumption of alcohol (alcoholism) can lead to damage of nerves leading to RLS.

2.6. Celiac Disease

Celiac disease is an intestinal chronic disease characterized by a loss of appetite, malabsorption, and diarrhea due to gluten intolerance.

Celiac disease can also lead to iron deficiency which may lead to RLS. In fact, a study showed that 40% of studied patients with celiac disease had an iron deficiency [8].

2.7. Parkinson’s Disease

The characteristic dysfunction of dopamine in Parkinson’s Disease may explain why RLS is observed in some PD patients [9].

2.8. Iron Deficiency Anemia

Iron deficiency anemia is caused by a lack of iron in the body resulting in a reduction of the number of red blood cells leading to anemia. This lack of iron can also affect dopamine production.

3. What Symptoms Come with Restless Leg Syndrome?

Restless leg syndrome manifests with the following symptoms:

• An urge to move the legs due unpleasant sensations in the legs.
• An urge to move the legs during periods of rest or inactivity.
• The urge to move the legs may partially or totally be relieved by movement, such as walking or stretching.
• The urge to move the legs is increased in the evening or night than during the day.

4. Is Restless Leg Syndrome Psychological?

Although restless leg syndrome (RLS) is considered a neurological disease, a study that included 38 patients with RLS and 42 non-RLS controls, showed that patients with RLS have a lower internal locus of control (ability to impact its own health) and negative sleep-related personality traits compared to the non-RLS controls [10].

A negative sleep-related personality trait is associated with lower self-confidence, depression, higher mental arousal, and poorer quality of life.

5. How do you get rid of restless legs syndrome?

The treatment of RLS is aimed at relieving the associated symptoms that are caused by underlying physical conditions such as diabetes, celiac disease, or iron deficiency.

Medications to relieve the symptoms of RLS involve the use of dopaminergic drugs to improve dopamine effects, opioids to relieve the symptoms of severe RLS, and benzodiazepines for restful sleep.

Changes in lifestyle such as stopping alcohol, exercising (e.g., aerobics, stretching), taking iron supplements, respecting a regular sleep pattern, can help relieve some of the moderate symptoms.

Conclusion

Restless leg syndrome (RLS) can cause uncomfortable sensations that can affect sleep and the quality of life of the affected individual. The cause is unknown, but many studies highlighted the potential involvement of dopamine as the main cause.

RLS is also associated with several diseases which share with RLS the deficiency in iron which is an essential cofactor in the production of dopamine. However, other diseases and conditions such as diabetes or alcoholism can lead to nerve damage due to high blood levels of glucose or alcohol, respectively.

Although there is no specific treatment for RLS, dealing with this disease involves symptomatic treatments that aim at alleviating or reducing the undesirable and overwhelming manifestations of RLS.

The post What Is Restless Leg Syndrome (Willis-Ekbom Disease)? appeared first on .

• Exercise
• Diet
• Brain Activity
• Preventing Brain Injury
• Social Interactions
• Stopping or Limiting Alcohol Consumption
• Preventing Hyperglycemia
• Preventing Hypertension
• Reducing Cholesterol level
• Promoting Emotional Well-Being
• Keeping Out of Drug Consumption

1- Exercise

Physical activity has been shown to inversely correlate with the risk of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease.

A study that investigated data from 163797 individuals (without dementia) compared the risk of dementia between individuals that had a high physical activity and those with a lower physical activity [1].

They found that physical activity reduces the risk of dementia by 28% and the risk of Alzheimer’s disease by 45%.

Another study investigated the correlation between aerobic exercise and cognition and found that aerobic exercise improves attention, processing speed, and memory [2].

How does exercise Improve Brain Function?

• Exercise increases heart rate and blood flow which provide the brain with more oxygen and nutrients that are necessary for its metabolism and energy production.

• Exercise reduces or slows down cognitive deficits by promoting the production of new neurons in the hippocampus, a process known as hippocampal neurogenesis [3].

• Exercise increases the secretion of the growth factor BDNF (Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor) that promotes the differentiation, survival, and plasticity (connections) of neurons [4].

2- Diet

A healthy diet provides nutrients that are essential for brain function, for the generation and maintenance of existing and new neurons.

• Glucose

Glucose is essential for the metabolism of the brain as it is required for the production of energy (ATP). However, too much glucose can have negative effects on the brain but also lead to chronic diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.

• Amino Acids

Amino acids are the building block for proteins that are necessary for the maintenance and activity of neurons which involves connecting with other neurons (neuronal plasticity) and for neurotransmission of information between the brain and the rest of the body.

• Vitamins

Vitamins work as coenzymes (help the activities of enzymes) in the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids.

Vitamins are also involved in the synthesis of neurotransmitters necessary for the nervous system’s functions.

• Essential Minerals

Essential minerals also work as coenzymes in many enzymatic reactions and are involved in neurotransmission.

Iron is essential for the production of energy (ATP) in the brain. As a coenzyme, Iron is involved in the synthesis of the neurotransmitters, serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine.

Magnesium has an essential role in neurotransmission and neuromuscular transduction through its protective function against excitotoxicity (excessive transmission by neurotransmitters)

• Fatty Acids

Fatty acids are essential compounds of the membrane of cells, including neurons.

The omega 3 fatty acid, Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) is the principal constituent of the plasma membrane of neurons found in the brain and cerebral cortex.

• Plant-Based Antioxidants

Plant-Based Antioxidants such as flavones, polyphenols, flavonoids, phytoestrogens, and catechins, prevent oxidative stress damage to neurons that causes their death. They perform this action by neutralizing free radicals.

3- Brain Activity

Activities such as puzzles, crosswords, painting, drawing, video games, and problem-solving games, stimulate brain function by increasing the connectivity of the neurons’ connectivity (plasticity).

4- Preventing Brain Injury

Individuals that survive a moderate to severe traumatic injury are more likely to experience long-lasting cognitive deficits [5]. The seriousness of the cognitive deficits depends on the severity of the injury, the location of the lesion, and the cause of the injury.

5- Social Interactions

Meaningful social interaction through family, friends and social support can significantly reduce the risk of diseases such as neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., dementia), cardiovascular diseases, strokes, respiratory diseases, and other pathologies [6] [7].

6- Stopping or Limiting Alcohol Consumption

Alcohol is a stimulator of the central nervous system through the induction of the release of the neurotransmitter, dopamine, which results in a feeling of pleasure.

However, excessive consumption of alcohol (quantity and duration) was associated with brain damage and neurocognitive deficits that significantly affect learning, and intellectual development [8].

7- Preventing Hyperglycaemia

An excessive level of glucose in the blood (Hyperglycaemia) can cause brain injuries through damaging brain blood vessels which prevent the brain from obtaining the necessary nutrients (Ischemia).

A prolonged state of hyperglycemia can also cause vascular cognitive impairment, also known as vascular dementia [9].

8- Preventing Hypertension

Hypertension or a high level of blood pressure can significantly affect the function of blood vessels which limits nutrients supply to the brain and causes white matter lesions, and therefore, cognitive deficit.

Hypertension can also cause dementia, and other diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, stroke, and kidney disease [10].

9- Reducing Cholesterol level

Cholesterol is an essential component of the membrane of cells, including neurons, and is necessary for the production of steroid hormones and the acids of the bile.

However, excessive levels of cholesterol in the body can cause atherosclerosis (narrowing of the blood vessels), and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) [11].

10- Promoting Emotional Well-Being

Stress and anxiety can develop into depression. This transition affects brain function through alterations in the transmission of information that is managed by the brain neurotransmitters [12].

Therefore, reducing stress, anxiety, and depression can significantly improve brain function and a state of well-being.

11- Keeping Out of Drug Consumption

Recreational use of brain stimulants such as psychomotor stimulants can result in neurotoxicity that significantly damages the brain neurons due to the excessive activation of neurotransmitters in the brain (Excitotoxicity).

Conclusion

To improve the function of the brain, changes in lifestyle are necessary. Consuming healthy foods that contain enough glucose, amino acids, minerals, fatty acids, and antioxidants, provides the brain with the necessary nutrients for its function.

A balanced diet that has the right amount of cholesterol can also promote brain function without causing chronic diseases that can significantly reduce longevity.

In addition to its euphoric effect, exercising helps blood flow and delivery of nutrients to the brain, reducing stress, anxiety, depression, and hypertension.

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• Coffee
• Chocolate
• Tea
• Alcohol
• Tobacco

However, before discussing foods that are rich in stimulants of the central nervous system (CNS), it is important to introduce the CNS and the different classes of stimulants.

1- What Is the Central Nervous System?

The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

The central nervous system is made of the brain and the spinal cord that are protected within the skull and the spine (vertebral column).

Nerves that leave or enter the central nervous system (CNS) are known as the peripheral nervous system and are divided into sensory nerves and motor nerves.

Sensory nerves are the nerves that transmit information from the body to the brain, while motor nerves transmit information from the brain to the body.

2- What do Stimulants Do to the Central Nervous system?

Stimulants induce the activity of the central nervous system through the following mechanisms:

• Increase the release of neurotransmitters

Depending on the type of neurotransmitter, some of them reduce nerve impulses such as GABA, while other transmitters promote nerve impulses such as glutamate.

• Stimulate post-synaptic receptors

When neurotransmitters are released in the synapses by a neuron, they go and bind to receptors on the receiving neuron or organ. It is like crossing from one side of a river to the other side. These receptors are called post-synaptic receptors.

• Block the reuptake of neurotransmitters

After a neurotransmitter has completed its function, it is reabsorbed by a transporter that is found on the cell membrane of a neuron.

This reuptake of neurotransmitters is a type of recycling that also allows the control of the duration of the activity of the neurotransmitter.

An excess of neurotransmitter activity can result in excitotoxicity which is associated with excessive activation of the neurotransmitter that can cause damage or death of nerve cells.

Damages and death of the nerve cells that are due to excitotoxicity can result in diseases such as neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis), traumatic brain injury, and stroke.

Neurotransmitters are messengers that transmit specific chemical instructions from a neuron to another neuron and from neurons to tissues and organs. 

Here are some of the neurotransmitters found in the central nervous system:

• Acetylcholine
• Dopamine
• Glutamate
• GABA
• Serotonin
• Norepinephrine
• Histamine
• Adenosine

As neurotransmitters are chemical messengers, they hold instructions such as excitatory (Doing) or inhibitory (Stop doing) information that is communicated and conveyed between neurons until they reach the target tissue or organ responsible for the execution of a specific action such as thinking, learning, emotions, memory, and movement.

3- CNS Stimulants Classification

• Analeptic stimulants

Analeptic stimulants are substances that stimulate respiration. They are mostly used for respiratory depression during coma, due to drug overdose or anesthesia [1].

Analeptic stimulants include plant alkaloids such as strychnine and synthetic compounds such as doxapram and pentylenetetrazol.

• Psychomotor Stimulants

Psychomotor stimulants are substances that stimulate arousal, alertness, and motor activity. They are clinically used for the treatment of attention-deficit or hyperactivity disorder.

This type of stimulant includes compounds such as cocaine and amphetamines.

• Methylxanthines

Methylxanthines are substances that are naturally present in certain plants and that derive from the purine base xanthine.

They are used in the treatment of lung conditions such as asthma and COPD (Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) but are also used as general stimulants [2].

This type of stimulant includes caffeine, theophylline, and Theobromine.

4- What Foods Are Stimulants

• Coffee

Coffee is rich in the methylxanthine stimulant caffeine which has psychoactive effects on the central nervous system resulting in changes in perception, cognition, mood, behavior, and consciousness.

The psychoactive effect of caffeine is associated with its inhibition of the neurotransmitter adenosine which is a depressant that favors sleep and blocks arousal [3].

• Tobacco

Tobacco is rich in nicotine that stimulates the central nervous system by inducing the release of neurotransmitters, including acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin, b-endorphin, and norepinephrine.

In addition to its effect on mood, nicotine intake also results in vasoconstriction (narrowing of vessels), tachycardia, and hypertension [4].

Medically, nicotine (not tobacco) is used to reduce aggression in individuals with autism spectrum disorder [5].

Nicotine is found at a higher concentration in tobacco products; however, it is also found at very low concentrations in potatoes, tomatoes, and eggplants.

• Chocolate

Chocolate contains the methylxanthine stimulant theobromine which inhibits the function of the neurotransmitter adenosine, a depressant that favors sleep and blocks arousal [6].

The inhibition of the neurotransmitter adenosine is like the caffeine one but at a lower level.

Theobromine is also a vasodilator (widening of vessels), a diuretic, and a heart stimulator. Medically, it is used as a bronchodilator and a vasodilator.

• Tea

Tea contains caffeine but also low levels of theophylline and theobromine. Theophylline is also a methylxanthine stimulant that blocks the activity of the neurotransmitter adenosine [7].

Theophylline is a vasodilator, a smooth muscle, and cardiac muscles stimulant, and a diuretic.

It also increases gastric secretion and plays a role in anti-inflammation.

Medically, theophylline is used for the treatment of asthma.

• Alcohol

Alcohol is also known as ethanol. Alcohol is a stimulator of the central nervous system through the induction of the release of the neurotransmitter, dopamine, which results in a feeling of pleasure.

However, this stimulant effect is soon replaced by an anti-depressant effect [8].

Conclusion

Coffee, tea, chocolate, alcohol, and tobacco are consumed by many people in the world. While health risks associated with chocolate, tea, and coffee are very low, the consumption of alcohol and tobacco have a higher health risk.

Although the consumption of caffeine is associated with a dependency associated with its relatively strong methylxanthine stimulant effect, nicotine and alcohol consumption have much higher dependencies that can be extremely difficult to cure.

In addition, tobacco smoking is a well-known risk factor for cancer, while alcoholism can lead to mental health issues such as depressed mood and an increased risk of suicide. Other effects of alcoholism are associated with an increased risk of diseases such as liver cirrhosis, heart disease, epilepsy, and alcoholic dementia.

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It is estimated that about 40 percent of adult men and 24 percent of adult women are regular snorers [1]. 

1. Is Snoring Dangerous?

Although snoring is harmless, it can also be due to a serious health issue when it is associated with obstructive sleep apnea and chronic diseases, such as type II diabetes and high cholesterol.

2. What Are the Causes of Snoring?

Snoring can be due to lifestyles such as smoking, consumption of alcohol and sedatives, or sleep positions but it can also be associated with genetics such as inherited genes that shape the head and neck anatomy of an individual.

Snoring can also be associated with conditions including chronic nasal congestion, obstructive sleep apnea, and hypothyroidism.

• Snoring and Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA)

Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) is a condition characterized by intermittent episodes of partial or complete obstruction of the airways due to soft tissue falling at the back of the throat (Upper airway) when sleeping.

It is estimated that approximately 34% of middle-aged men and 17% of middle-aged women are diagnosed with OSA [2].

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) can cause cardiovascular diseases through the following mechanisms [3]:

• Sympathetic activation (fight-or-flight response)
• Intrathoracic pressure changes that limit heartbeat
• Oxidative stress causing tissue damage
• Abnormalities in coagulation factors
• Endothelial damage (damage to the blood vessels)
• Inflammatory mediators that lead to defects in the formation of vessels.

• Snoring and Head and Neck Anatomy

The shape of the head and face, the anatomy of the upper airway, and the circumference of the neck are predictors of sleep apnea and snoring in individuals [4].

A large tongue, craniofacial abnormalities, a receding chin, and a small jaw are associated with the reduction of the size of the upper airway which increases the risk of sleep apnea and snoring.

A neck circumference that is higher than 16.5 inches is also a risk factor for sleep apnea and snoring.

Abnormalities in cells that control breathing known as chemoreceptors can also reduce the size of the upper airway.

These anatomical characteristics may be due to inherited genes responsible for increased risk of sleep apnea and snoring [5].

• Snoring and Alcohol

Alcohol consumption increases the relaxation of soft tissues in the upper airway causing sleep apnea and snoring.

A study showed that alcohol consumption increases the severity of snoring, sleep apnea, and the levels of oxygen in blood and tissues (Hypoxia) [6].

• Snoring and Sedatives

Analgesics, anesthetics, opioids, and sedatives can also increase the relaxation of the tongue and soft tissues in the upper airway resulting in sleep apnea and snoring [7].

• Snoring and Smoking

Cigarette smoke can irritate and inflame the nasal cavity and the upper airway making them swell which reduces the capacity of breathing.

Another cause may be associated with nicotine withdrawal during sleep that causes sleep instability that increases the risk of sleep apnea and snoring [8].

• Snoring and Sleep Position

Sleeping on the lateral side is the best position while sleeping on the back is likely to increase sleep apnea and snoring.

This difference is due to gravity that increases the tendency for the tongue and soft tissues to fall to the back of the throat causing obstruction of the upper airway [9].

• Snoring and Chronic Nasal Congestion

Chronic Nasal Congestion is characterized by inflammation and swelling of the nasal cavity and the sinuses that lasts for more than 3 months and resulting in reduced breathing through the nose.

Chronic Nasal Congestion can be caused by sinusitis, nasal polyps, allergic rhinitis, or a deviated nasal septum (wall between the nasal cavities).

A study found that nasal congestion during sleep is a strong risk factor for habitual snoring [10].

• Snoring and Aging

The relaxation of the muscles of the upper airway is a normal event in aging which explains why it is common in the adult population.

However, persistent snoring is an indicator of a potential reduction of oxygen levels in blood and tissue (Hypoxia) associated with sleep apnea.  Persistent hypoxia may increase the process of aging by promoting hallmarks of aging such as stem cell exhaustion, telomere attrition, and epigenetic changes [11].

• Snoring and Being Overweight

Being overweight or out of shape can reduce muscle tone and increase fat deposition around the neck and throat that can promote the obstruction of the upper airway causing sleep apnea and snoring.

• Snoring and Hypothyroidism

Hypothyroidism is a disorder associated with reduced production of the thyroid hormones resulting in symptoms such as weight gain, fatigue, depression, and slow heart rate [12].

Another important characteristic of hypothyroidism is the enlargement of the thyroid known as goiter (neck looking enlarged) that can interfere with breathing by obstructing the upper airway causing sleep apnea and snoring.

3. Why Do I Snore Loud?

Sounding loud is associated with a higher obstruction of the upper airway. The more it is obstructed the more is the breathing difficulty, and therefore, the louder is the snoring.

4- How Is snoring Tested?

• Home Sleep Apnea Test

Portable devices are used to measure the breathing and blood oxygen level while you sleep.

• In-lab sleep study

This is performed in a sleep center where brain waves, breathing, eye movements, blood oxygen, heartbeats, and limb movements are measured.

5. What Are the Best Snoring Solutions?

Snoring can be reduced by tackling the causes that are outlined above.

• Lifestyle changes

– Reducing or stopping alcohol consumption can significantly prevent sleep apnea and snoring.

– Sleeping on the lateral side can reduce snoring.

– In addition to other benefits for health, quitting smoking can also gradually prevent or reduce snoring.

– Losing weight through a healthy diet and exercise.

– Avoiding tranquilizers and sleeping pills.

• Treatment of allergies

Allergies can cause chronic nasal congestion, and therefore, medications that reduce allergies can prevent snoring.

• Surgery

To restore a normal breathing pattern during the night surgery is performed on the nose or the back of the throat.

• Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP)

This is performed using a device that gently blows room temperature air through a mask or mouthpiece to the back of the throat to prevent breathing pauses.

• Oral Appliance Therapy

This therapy involves the use of a removable oral device and is recommended for individuals who cannot tolerate CPAP and whose OSA is moderate or mild.

Conclusion

Snoring increases with age and can be due to lifestyle which can be reversed by making changes in sleep position, avoiding alcohol and smoking, and having a healthy diet; however, it can become serious and lead to chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases and type II diabetes if untreated.

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What Are the Causes of Dizziness?

The common causes of dizziness are labyrinthitis, stress and anxiety, headache and migraine, hypoglycemia, vertebrobasilar insufficiency, and dehydration. Less common causes are associated with excessive alcohol consumption (binge drinking), Illness, and Carbon Monoxide Poisoning.

1- Labyrinthitis

Labyrinthitis is an inflammation of the inner ear and specifically of the membranous labyrinth that leads to its irritation and swelling. This ear structure is made of a network of passages full of liquid which play an essential role in the control of sound detection and balance by the inner ear. Labyrinthitis is usually caused by a bacterial or viral infection (e.g., cold or flu).

2- Stress and Anxiety

Dizziness has been associated with panic symptoms in stressed and anxious individuals due to central-neurologic links between the vestibular system which controls the sense of balance and spatial orientation and the autonomous nervous system controls the nervous system’s unconscious activity [2].

3- Migraine

Dizziness is one of the symptoms of vestibular migraine whose causes are unknown. However, one possible explanation is a potential link between pain and swelling during inner ear inflammation and migraine and dizziness.

4- Hypoglycaemia

To function the brain requires energy that is produced from glucose that is supplied by the blood. Normally, glucose is maintained in the range of 3.9 to 6.1 millimoles per liter (mmol/L) of blood; however, diabetes patients receiving a diabetic treatment can periodically experience hypoglycemia (Low glucose level) which causes dizziness, fatigue, and weakness.

5- Hypotension

The normal blood pressure in a healthy adult is between 90/60 and 120/80 mmHg. A blood pressure of less than 90/60 mmHg can lead to dizziness. This is commonly observed in individuals with diabetes or cardiovascular diseases.

6- Vertebrobasilar Insufficiency

Vertebrobasilar Insufficiency is transitory ischemia of the vertebrobasilar circulation associated with decreased blood flow in the posterior circulation of the brain that is provided by the basilar artery. Diseases such as atherosclerosis can block or narrow this artery causing a reduced blood supply to several parts of the brain leading to dizziness and imbalance [3].

7- Dehydration

Dehydration prevents a sufficient supply of water and electrolytes to the body resulting in blood dehydration and a decrease in blood flow leading to an insufficient supply of nutrients to tissues and organs, including the brain.

8- Excessive Alcohol Consumption

Excessive alcohol consumption leads to alcohol intoxication and alcoholic ketoacidosis reduces the secretion of insulin by the pancreas which affects glucose usage by the cells in tissue and organs of the body. Diabetes can also lead to ketoacidosis, known as diabetic ketoacidosis.

9- Medication

Discontinuation of antidepressant medication, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (e.g., Prozac) results in a high frequency of dizziness that may be due to their role in improving balance control and cognitive functioning [4]. Blood pressure medication can also induce hypotension leading to dizziness.

10- Illness

Disorders such as vestibular neuritis or diseases such as Ménière’s Disease comprise dizziness as one of the main symptoms.

• Vestibular neuritis

This disorder affects the vestibulocochlear nerve within the inner ear that sends balance and head position information from the inner ear to the brain. Damage to this nerve (e.g., viral infections) disturbs the function of the nerve which results in dizziness and unbalance [5].

• Ménière’s Disease

Although the causes are not well known, this disease affects the inner ear, and its symptoms include tinnitus (Perception of internal sounds), loss of hearing, and vertigo.

11- Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

The blood transport oxygen to tissues and organs of the body to produce the energy necessary for their functions. Following, carbon monoxide exposure, blood oxygen is replaced by carbon monoxide which results in cellular toxicity.

What Is the Difference Between Dizziness and Vertigo?

Although dizziness and vertigo have been interchangeably used, dizziness is a perception associated with feeling light-headed and unsteady, while vertigo is the perception of being in movement or that your surrounding is in movement. Vertigo is also characterized by symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, sweating, and walking difficulty.

How to Prevent or Treat Dizziness?

The prevention or treatment of dizziness is focused on dealing with its causes. For instance, labyrinthitis and Vestibular neuritis, are treated with antihistamines or motion-sickness tablets. Vestibular rehabilitation through physiotherapeutic exercises is also recommended to help restore balance. Changes in lifestyle, staying hydrated, avoiding binge drinking, and reducing stress levels can prevent dizziness.

Conclusion

Dizziness is not generally associated with a serious condition; however, in certain cases, it can be due to chronic conditions such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases which require specific treatments. It can also be related to mental disorders such as migraines, and anxiety, which also rely on anti-depressant treatments.

Unfortunately, the causes of Ménière’s disease are not well-known and the potential involvement of hereditary transmission has been proposed. In this case, the treatment relies on the use of medications that reduce nausea and diuretics to reduce liquid build-up in the inner ear.

Finally, dizziness is a symptom that is shared by several disorders such as vertigo, and therefore, it is confusing to differentiate between the two if the right questions are not asked during the diagnostic stage.

References

[1] Neuhauser, H.K., 2016. The epidemiology of dizziness and vertigo. Handbook of clinical neurology, 137, pp.67-82.

[2] Balaban, C.D. and Thayer, J.F., 2001. Neurological bases for balance–anxiety links. Journal of anxiety disorders, 15(1-2), pp.53-79.

[3] Lima, A.C., Bittar, R., Gattas, G.S., Bor-Seng-Shu, E., Oliveira, M.D.L., Monsanto, R.D.C. and Bittar, L.F., 2017. Pathophysiology and diagnosis of vertebrobasilar insufficiency: a review of the literature. International archives of otorhinolaryngology, 21, pp.302-307.

[4] Ramos, R.T., 2006. Antidepressants and dizziness. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 20(5), pp.708-713.

[5] Jeong, S.H., Kim, H.J. and Kim, J.S., 2013, July. Vestibular neuritis. In Seminars in neurology (Vol. 33, No. 03, pp. 185-194). Thieme Medical Publishers.

[6] Harcourt, J., Barraclough, K. and Bronstein, A.M., 2014. Meniere’s disease. Bmj, 349.

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1. Physiological Mechanisms of Headaches and Migraines

Migraine can be due to a genetic complex familial disorder that is most likely governed by several genes, however, both headache and migraine are caused by trigeminal nerve activation and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) release from the trigeminovascular system.

The trigeminal nerve transmits sensations of touch and pain in the face and motor functions. These sensations are transmitted through the nerve’s three major branches: the ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular nerves [1].

Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) is a neuropeptide produced and secreted by the thyroid C cells and stored in the trigeminovascular system, which consists of a complex of sensory neurons that innervate cerebral blood vessels, pial vessels, dura mater, and large venous sinuses.

Once released from these neurons, CGRP has been associated with nociceptive transmission (perception or sensation of pain), and release from perivascular nerve endings causing neurogenic vasodilatation [2]. 

2. Causes of Headaches and Migraines

Several causes trigger a headache and migraine, and among these, stress, environment, diet, hormones, lack of sleep, and gallbladder disorders, are the main ones.

A. Stress and Migraines

Migraines and headaches are often caused by stress. When a person is stressed, the body releases certain hormones which can trigger migraines and headaches. These hormones can cause the blood vessels in the head to dilate, leading to pain [3].

Additionally, stress can lead to tension headaches, which are caused by muscle contractions in the neck and head. Tension headaches are the most common type of headache, and they can be triggered by stress, fatigue, poor posture, and eyestrain.

B. Diet and Migraines

Many experts believe that diet may play a role. Some foods are known to trigger migraines and headaches, including aged cheeses, processed meats, nuts, and chocolate. Drinking too much alcohol or caffeine can also bring on these unpleasant symptoms [4].

If you suffer from migraines or headaches, it’s important to keep track of what foods seem to aggravate them. Try eliminating suspected triggers from your diet for a few weeks and see if your symptoms improve. You may also want to try eating smaller meals more often throughout the day instead of three large meals. Getting enough sleep and regular exercise can also help reduce the likelihood of migraines and headaches.

C. Gall Bladder and Migraines

The association between the gall bladder and migraines has been shown by a study of 20,427 patients who were diagnosed with gallbladder stone disease (GSD) between 2000 and 2011 from Taiwan’s National Health Insurance Research Database (NHIRD). The study reported a greater cumulative incidence of migraines in patients with GSD compared with those without GSD [5].  

D. Environmental Factors and Migraines

Environmental factors that cause headaches and migraines are associated with seasonal allergies and weather changes that can affect the sinuses.

E. Hormones and Migraines

A link between hormones such as estrogens and migraines has also been reported. This is reflected by the increased frequency of migraines during menstruation [6].

F. Sleep and Migraines

Finally, a lack of sleep is another cause of headaches and migraines. This interaction was shown by a study of 50 migraineurs which confirmed previous observations that sleep is a common way of ending the headache phase [7].

3. Headaches and Migraines treatment

Migraines can be debilitating and frustrating. Many people do not know how to treat them. There are many treatments for migraines, but what works for one person may not work for another. Some people find that over-the-counter medications work well (e.g., Ibuprofen or Aspirin), while others need prescription medication.

Some people find that they need to see a neurologist to get help with their migraines. Several alternative treatments can help, including acupuncture and chiropractic care.

4. Frequently Asked Questions About What Causes Headaches and Migraines

What causes headaches and migraines?

Headaches and migraines can be caused by various factors, including stress, tension, dehydration, lack of sleep, hormonal changes, certain foods, environmental factors, and underlying health conditions.

Can weather changes cause headaches and migraines?

Yes, some people are sensitive to changes in weather patterns, such as barometric pressure changes, which can trigger headaches and migraines.

Are headaches and migraines hereditary?

There is evidence to suggest that genetics play a role in predisposing individuals to migraines. If one or both parents have a history of migraines, there’s an increased likelihood of experiencing them.

Can food and drinks trigger headaches and migraines?

Yes, certain foods and drinks, such as aged cheeses, processed meats, caffeine, alcohol, and artificial sweeteners, can trigger headaches and migraines in susceptible individuals.

Can stress cause headaches and migraines?

Yes, stress is a common trigger for both tension headaches and migraines. Managing stress through relaxation techniques, exercise, and mindfulness can help reduce the frequency and severity of headaches.

Are there any specific environmental factors that can trigger headaches and migraines?

Yes, environmental factors such as bright lights, loud noises, strong odors, and changes in altitude or air pressure can trigger headaches and migraines in some people.

Can hormonal changes trigger headaches and migraines?

Yes, hormonal fluctuations, such as those occurring during menstruation, pregnancy, or menopause, can trigger migraines in some individuals.

Are there certain medical conditions that can cause headaches and migraines?

Yes, underlying medical conditions such as high blood pressure, sinus infections, temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disorder, and intracranial abnormalities can cause headaches and migraines.

How can I determine what triggers my headaches and migraines?

Keeping a headache diary can help identify triggers by tracking factors such as food and drink intake, sleep patterns, stress levels, weather changes, and menstrual cycles, along with headache occurrence.

When should I see a doctor about my headaches and migraines?

You should see a doctor if you experience severe or frequent headaches, headaches that worsen over time, headaches accompanied by other symptoms such as vision changes, numbness, weakness, or difficulty speaking, or if your headaches interfere with daily activities despite over-the-counter treatments.

Conclusion

Although some headaches and migraines appear to be due to a hereditary genetic complex familial disorder, most are due to stress and diet that can be individually controllable through a healthy lifestyle.

Other types of headaches and migraines are periodic due to menstruation in women and environmental changes. However, treatment for gallbladder stone disease is required for related headaches and migraines.

References

[1] https://teachmeanatomy.info/head/cranial-nerves/trigeminal-nerve/

[2] Benemei, S., Nicoletti, P., Capone, J.G. and Geppetti, P., 2009. CGRP receptors in the control of pain and inflammation. Current opinion in pharmacology, 9(1), pp.9-14.

[3] Sauro, K.M. and Becker, W.J., 2009. The stress and migraine interaction. Headache: The journal of head and face pain, 49(9), pp.1378-1386.

[4] Finocchi, C. and Sivori, G., 2012. Food as trigger and aggravating factor of migraine. Neurological Sciences, 33(1), pp.77-80.

[5] Chen, C.H., Lin, C.L. and Kao, C.H., 2018. Gallbladder stone disease is associated with an increased risk of migraines. Journal of clinical medicine, 7(11), p.455.

[6] MacGregor, A., 2000. Migraine associated with menstruation. Functional neurology, 15, pp.143-153.

[7] Blau, J.N., 1982. Resolution of migraine attacks: sleep and the recovery phase. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 45(3), pp.223-226.

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This accumulation results in loss of neurons in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex, leading to progressive cognitive decline such as memory defects.

A connection between the brain and the gastrointestinal tract has been suggested due to the significant influence of the gastrointestinal flora (microbiome or microbiota) over the brain-gut axis [1] [2].

1. What Is the Role of Gut Flora in Alzheimer’s Disease?

The gastrointestinal tract is full of harmless bacteria that positively affect our health and contribute to our body’s natural processes. However, unbalance of the gut flora (Dysbiosis) can lead to significant pathological changes that can affect our immune system and brain functions.

This unbalance is due to several reasons such as a dietary change, accidental chemical consumption (unwashed pesticides on fruit and vegetables), alcohol consumption, inflammation, and excessive antibiotics’ medication.

2- What Is the Role of Dietary Changes in Alzheimer’s disease (AD)?

To reduce the risk of losing neurons in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex, responsible for the progressive cognitive decline (memory loss), it is necessary to consume food that is rich in compounds that promote and maintain the survival of neurons and their connectivity to each other.

• Glutathione

Glutathione is an antioxidant that prevents damage to neurons that are caused by reactive oxidative stress, such as free radicals, and heavy metals.

Substances that are metabolized in the liver and excreted in the bile require conjugation with glutathione to facilitate their absorption by the gut circulation [3].

Glutathione is mainly found in foods such as beef, poultry, eggs, milk, avocados, strawberries, oranges, blueberries, watermelon, peaches, and grapefruit.

• Polyphenols

Polyphenols are organic compounds that include flavonoids, such as quercetin, and epigallocatechin gallate. Quercetin is an inhibitor of the enzyme, BACE-1 (beta-amyloid precursor protein–cleaving enzyme 1) that has a role in the formation of beta-amyloid plaques [4].

In the gut, the microbiota transforms polyphenols into neuroprotective polyphenols that protect neurons during Alzheimer’s disease [4].  

Foods that are rich in polyphenols include cocoa products, blueberries, various spices, dried herbs, flaxseed, nuts (chestnut, hazelnut), olive and artichoke heads. 

• Curcumin (Turmeric)

Curcumin is a bioactive polyphenolic extract of turmeric that is used as a spice, food additive, and herbal medicine.

Curcumin has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, metal binding, and neuroprotective activities that improve the cognitive functions in patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) [5]. 

In the gut, curcumin was suggested to favor beneficial bacteria by increasing the abundance of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacilli and reducing pathogenic bacteria such as Prevotellaceae, Enterobacteria, Enterococci, and Coriobacteriia that can affect brain health [6].

• Vitamin B6

Vitamin B6 is an essential coenzyme involved in the metabolism of glucose, fat, and proteins [7]. Vitamin B6 is also involved in lowering the level of homocysteine (made from methionine) in the blood by converting it into cysteine.

An increased homocysteine level (hyperhomocysteinemia) can result in blood vessels damage, including vessels in the brain which can affect nutrients supply to neurons leading to their death by starvation [8].

In the gut, Vitamin B6 (microbial vitamin B6) can be produced by bacteria such as Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria, where it also contributes to the gut immunity to ensure the proper function of the gut in nutrients absorption [9].

Vitamin B6 is mainly found in meat products such as Beef, pork, chicken, and fish.

• Vitamin B12

Vitamin B12 is a coenzyme involved in fatty acids and protein metabolisms, DNA synthesis, and maturation of red blood cells.

It is also necessary for the production of myelin, a protein covering neurons, and necessary for the nervous system function through its role in the transfer of nerve impulses and metabolic support of neurons [10].

Like vitamin B6, vitamin B12 also reduces homocysteine level (hyperhomocysteinemia) and prevents the damage of blood vessels, including vessels of the brain which, and therefore, can affect nutrients supply to neurons leading to their death by starvation [11].

In the gut, certain bacteria and archaea produce vitamin B12 during food fermentation.

It is naturally present in foods such as meat, liver, milk, clams, fortified breakfast cereals, and eggs.

• Folic Acid (Vitamin B9)

Vitamin B9 is required for DNA synthesis and for the activation of vitamin B12, and therefore, indirectly plays an important role in protecting blood vessels from damage, including the brain blood vessels [12].

Many bacteria in the gut produce an active form of folic acid known as tetrahydrofolate (THF), including Bacteroides, firmicutes, actinobacteria, fusobacteria, and proteobacteria.

Many types of food contain vitamin B9; however, due to its instability (e.g., high heat cooking), it is being added to several food sources as a fortifier to prevent a vitamin B9 deficiency.

• Unsaturated Fatty Acids

Unsaturated Fatty Acids are parts of phospholipids that are necessary for the formation of the membranes of cells, including neurons. One of the most known unsaturated Fatty Acids is omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids [13].

In the gut, the microbiota regulates the availability and absorption of unsaturated fatty acids

Foods that are rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids include salmon, sardines, and mackerel.

• Lecithin

Lecithin is a fatty substance composed of a mixture of phospholipids that are rich in choline, a necessary component of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine that is involved in memory, mood, muscle, and nervous system functions [14].

In the gut, food that contains lecithin is digested by the pancreas and mucosal enzymes to produce choline that is absorbed by the gut circulation.

Lecithin is mainly found in foods such as meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, and eggs.

• Caffeine

Caffeine is a stimulant of the central nervous system where it has effects on learning, memory, alertness, and concentration. Caffeine has antioxidant effects and may protect against cell damage, including damages to neurons, by reducing oxidative stress [15].

Beverages, such as coffee, tea, soft and energy drinks, are digested by the gut flora to generate caffeine that is absorbed by the intestine’s circulation.

• Prebiotics

The most common prebiotics are fructooligosaccharides, galactooligosaccharides, and trans-galactooligosaccharides, but other prebiotics plays important roles in health and aging such as insulin enriched-oligofructose, lactulose, and oligofructose [16].

They are indigestible carbohydrates that are fermented and broken down by probiotics to obtain survival energy, and short-chain fatty acids such as lactic acid, butyric acid, and propionic acid.

The administration of prebiotics such as non-starch polysaccharides was shown to improve the performance of working and recognition memory and cognitive functions [17].

Prebiotics are found in carrots, quinoa, radishes, onions, chicory roots, konjac roots, oats, yams, garlic, barley, wheat bran, berries, apples, asparagus, bananas, leeks, chia seeds, flax seeds, cocoa, coconut, jicama root, and dandelion greens.

• Probiotics

The gut contains beneficial bacteria known as good bacteria, such as Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. These bacteria help other gut bacteria produce nutrients for the body by providing them with nutrients that are commonly known as prebiotics [18].

Probiotics are found in yogurt, lactobacillus milk, some cheeses such as Gouda, cheddar, cottage cheese, and mozzarella, pickles, sauerkraut, kefir, kimchi, tempeh, kombucha, and miso.

3- What Is the Role of Alcohol in Alzheimer’s disease (AD)?

Excessive consumption of alcohol for a long period can damage the brain and reduce the size of the brain white matter responsible for signal transmission in the brain.

It can also cause a deficiency in vitamin B1 resulting in diseases such as Korsakoff’s syndrome characterized by alterations in short-term memory [19].

4- What Is the Role of Pesticides in Alzheimer’s disease (AD)?

Pesticides are neurotoxins that can induce oxidative stress, the fibrilization of tau and alpha-synuclein (formation of amyloid fibrils), alteration in the function of mitochondria, and the loss of neurons [20].

People such as gardeners and farmers that use pesticides for their activities are at higher risks of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD).

Accidental consumption of pesticides associated with unwashed pesticides on fruit and vegetables can also increase the risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease (AD).

5- What Is the Role of Excessive Antibiotic Medication in Alzheimer’s disease (AD)?

Excessive use of antibiotics can cause an imbalance in the gut flora (microbiota) and affect the function of the probiotic population necessary for the generation of essential nutrients to the function of the body organs, including the brain [21].

6- What Is the Role of Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer’s disease (AD)?

Imbalance of the gut flora (Dysbiosis) can lead to disruptions in the gastrointestinal permeability and blood-brain barrier, that are due to the secretion of amyloid and lipopolysaccharides (LPS), known to modulate the inflammatory signaling pathway leading to neuroinflammation, neuronal injury, and ultimately to neuronal death in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) [1] [22]. 

Conclusion

To reduce the risk of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) that could be associated with an unbalance in the Gut flora (Dysbiosis), a healthy diet and the implementation of a healthy nutritive plan throughout a life of an individual is necessary.

Intake of pre-and probiotics, vitamins (B-complex vitamins), calcium, magnesium, zinc, and beta-carotene, can help prevent dysbiosis, while the consumption of processed meat, high carbohydrates containing food, and dairy products as well as excessive use of antibiotics, may promote dysbiosis.

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